Encyclopédie Mondiale des Cultures

"Noorderhaven, with Bassirou Tidjani from Senegal. African scientists in Africa and African students abroad were asked to suggest value survey items. Through a "Delphi" approach, the first results were anonymously fed back to the contributors, and their comments were incorporated. The questionnaire, in an English or a French version, was then administered to samples of male and female students in the African countries Cameroon, Ghana, Senegal, South Africa, Tanzania, and Zimbabwe and outside Africa in Belgium, Germany, Great Britain, Guyana, Hong Kong, Malaysia, the Netherlands, and the United States; it yielded a total of 1,100 respondents in fourteen countries.85"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Imagine you are on a flight to South Africa and the pilot says, "We have some problems with the engine so we will land temporarily in Burundi" (for those who do not know Burundi, it is next to Rwanda). What is your first impression of Burundi culture once you enter the airport building? It is not "what a nice set of values these people have," or even "don't they have an interesting shared system of meaning." It is the concrete, observ- able things like language, food or dress. Culture comes in layers, like an onion. To understand it you have to unpeel it layer by layer. sstcrreOaepntesrstbheetofwoeuMetaennrhtalhtaetymae.nr,Tahreepisletlhaerasreporfeoxdppurrcietvssastieoofnpscouwoleftrud,ree,ewpieltrihkevcatolhnuegesessotaaenrddingnpoubrslkmiysc- AN INTRODUCTION TO CULTURE"-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Riding the Waves of Culture"

"Happily things have changed in South Africa and a man has been brought to power who has the creativity, courage and grandeur to recon- cile cultural opposites. He is an extraordinary example of African humil- ity. Whether his example and vision will be enough to heal decades of injustice remains to be seen. Some people rise above oppression, but most do not. South Africa's future remains in the balance."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Riding the Waves of Culture"

"There is probably a residue of goodwill towards South Africa's ascent from domination. People may want to invest there, yet fear personal losses if they do. The virtuous circle reconciles collective aspiration with"-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Riding the Waves of Culture"

"Consider another case encountered by a German engineer in South Africa. We all work for money and most of us have a sense of pride and duty in our work, but the money-duty continuum may be radically dif- ferent in different cultures. The engineer gave his maid a Christmas bonus and she promptly disappeared for two months, since as she saw it she had no need to work. He was appalled. Of course we don't know her motives: she may have felt no obligation to an employer she disliked, but a sense of duty to an employer she did like. Or perhaps being a maid is"-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Riding the Waves of Culture"

"Africa according to our seven-dimensional model. The results confirmed that South Africa can be seen as a microcosm of the world. Not only black Africans from a variety of backgrounds, language, ethnicities, tribes etc., but also white people, European descendants and a variety of Asian cultures can be found in this fascinating continent. Colonial cul- tures were not able to suppress the indigenous African cultures. The country has been forced to experiment with new forms of living together based onavariety of backgrounds, and this is also true in business. Here reconciling principles are put to an extreme test."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Riding the Waves of Culture"

"Where are the gaps widest between the Western mental model and that in South Africa? Where does the society threaten to come apart? Where are the opportunities for creative synergy and reconciliation of dilem- mas?"-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Riding the Waves of Culture"

"One of President Nelson Mandela's prime goals seems to be reconcili- ation, to unite the variety of cultures in South Africa around one major cause: a free and democratic nation in which bloodshed and conflict de- fine the past, not the future. Since his inaugural speech he has been very clear about his strategy. The white population, Afrikaaners and English- speaking whites, are seen as an essential component in South Africa's fu- ture economy. Furthermore, Mandela has done his utmost to convince foreign investors that reconciliation between races can be the basis of sta- bility in South Africa. Afrikaaners received a presidential guarantee that their language and culture would not be And it should not be forgotten that some attacked in revenge for the past. prominent Afrikaaners, like for-"-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Riding the Waves of Culture"

"Chapter 14 and 15 discuss the diversity we find within cultures. Research findings illustrate ethnic differences within the USA and South Africa and the effect on culture of gender, age, functional background and type of industry. We will conclude that the cultures of nations are an important factor in defining the meaning which people assign to their"-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Riding the Waves of Culture"

"13 Reconciling Cultural Dilemmas 200 200 Awareness of cultural differences 202 Respecting cultural differences 205 Reconciling cultural differences 218 14 South Africa: The Rainbow Nation 219 Dilemma mapping in South Africa 2m Comparing African and Western mental models 227 15 Gender, Ethnicity and Functional Diversity 227 Gender differences worldwide 230 Diversity in the USA 231 Universalism--particularism 232 The group versus the individual 233 To show or not to show our emotions 235 How far do we get involved? 236 Is high status earned through achievement or ascribed? 238 Control or be controlled: American belief in inner-directness 240 How is time organized in the USA? 241 Functional diversity 246 Diversity in industries 247 Database mining General conclusions 249"-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Riding the Waves of Culture"

"Specific-diffuse There are no notable differences along this dimension. This does not mean, however, that all groups share the same orientation. Some black South African groups combine diffuse features, such as the importance attached to good and deep relationships, and putting the whole and vi- sions before analyses and facts, with more specific features, such as a very direct way of relating, and attaching great interest to principles and a consistent moral stand, demonstrated by the success of indigenous Christian churches among the black population in South Africa. English South Africans tend to combine specific features such as putting analy-"-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Riding the Waves of Culture"

"It must be emphasized that the data we have been discussing are aver- ages of a variety of scores within a certain national group. This and the previous chapter have considered some of the causes of this intra-cul- tural variety. We have found that ethnic differences within societies such as South Africa, and to a lesser degree the USA, can be as big as interna- tional differences."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Riding the Waves of Culture"

"In addition to updating the original research findings, we have added three new chapters and a revised appendix. Chapter 13 analyses a methodology for reconciling cultural dilemmas and developing transcul- tural competence. Chapters 14 and 15 discuss diversity within rather than between countries, describing ethnic differences in South Africa and the USA and also considering the effect on culture of gender, age, functional background and organizational structure. Appendix 2 outlines our re- search methodology in more detail."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Riding the Waves of Culture"

"barometer surveys, the latest from 1985. He included data for Argentina, Mexico, and South Africa. I ex- cluded South Africa because it produced 25% of revolu- tionary answers (this was the apartheid period) and Argentina and Mexico because they were so much poorer than the other countries; if I include them, the highest correlation for the percentage revolutionary an- swers is with 1980 GNP/capita (r = -.78**) before PDI (r= .72**)."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"43 countries were published by Inglehart et al. (1998). Of these 43 countries, 26 were also part of the IBM set. Data for South Africa were not used because in IBM these were only collected from whites, and in the World Values Survey they were collected from a sample of the total popula- tion. Nigeria was taken as equal to IBM’s West Africa region, in which Nigeria was the major country."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Individualism/collectivism differences operate also within countries. Orpen (1982) reported ona comparison of 90 black and 93 white clerks in South Africa. Peer and leader support were much more important for the blacks than for the whites; for the blacks this support moderated the relation- ship of job stress with performance and satisfac- tion, but not for the whites. In countries with a dominant individualist middle-class culture, re- gional rural subcultures have sometimes retained strongly collectivist elements. The same applies to the migrant worker minorities that form majori- ties among the workforce in some industries in some individualist countries. Such cases risk a culture mismatch between mainstream managers and regional or minority workers."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Orpen, C. (1982). The effect of social support on reac- tions to role ambiguity and conflict: A study among white and black clerks in South Africa. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 13, 375- 384."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"So in fact only questions 1, 2, and 5 really dealt with ethnocentrism; the others are a hodgepodge of traditional versus modern views. It could as well be called a “modernity” questionnaire. The scores per respondent group were as follows: Bantus in South Africa, 47; Brazil, 41; Lebanon, 37; Turkey, 34; Israel, 33; West Germany, 30; France, 28; Japan, 23; French Canadians, 22; Eng- lish Canadians, 20; United States, 18. Across 10 countries these scores rank correlated with rho = —.89*** with both IDV and 1970 GNP/capita, us- ing IBM scores for Canada for the English Cana- dians, for East Africa for the Bantus, and for Arabic-speaking countries for Lebanon. The Bantu 1970 GNP/capita was estimated at U.S.$200. The “ethnocentrism” score for the French Canadians was not used; through regres-"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"IDV. The values of IDV predicted on the basis of wealth plus latitude are listed next to the actual values in Exhibit 5.1. Differences of 14 or more points between actual and predicted value of IDV occurred for the following countries: more indi- vidualist, South Africa (+32 points), Australia, Great Britain, Italy, India, Ireland, New Zealand; less individualist, Sweden, Guatemala, South Ko- rea, Yugoslavia, Chile, Venezuela. These differ- ences represent the variance in IDV scores related not to wealth or latitude but, for example, to his- torical or traditional factors."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"55. In the negative correlation the low score from Hong Kong was crucial. However, Malaysia, for which no LTO score was available, scored even lower on this factor. With estimated LTO values for the missing coun- tries Belgium (38), Guyana (10), Malaysia (40), and South African whites (30), the correlation remained highly significant, r=-.62**."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Chapter 3 related the Power Distance Index to the difference between balanced power and un- balanced power in political systems. Exhibit 3.18 shows that 20 countries in the PDI range showed balanced power and 21 in the upper-PDI range showed unbalanced power since 1975. There were 9 exceptions: France, Belgium, Portugal, and Greece, with higher PDI and balanced power; and Argentina, Iran, Pakistan, South Africa, and Taiwan, with lower PDI and unbalanced power. IDV is even more closely associated with bal- anced power than PDI: From the top 19 countries in Exhibit 5.1, 18 had balanced power since 1975 (all but South Africa); from the remaining 31 countries only 5 had balanced power (Japan, Tur- key, Greece, Portugal, and Costa Rica), and some of these went through political upheaval shortly before 1975."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"At a business lunch, German managers might grind their teeth as French managers pass around the menu during the early part of the meet- ing. For Germans, time is exact and precise, a promise adhered to. For the 316 sequential synchronous time"-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"You do not have to be in France or Germany for long to notice the relative reserve, emphasis on privacy, shuttered houses, private gardens, and high walls. If you go to dinner you do not follow your host into her study, where she has gone to fetch a book. You do not enter the kitchen uninvited or ex- plore the house. Because close, diffuse relationships are special and rare, you spend time and effort cultivating them."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"right wing Nazi* Germany invaded and occupied Holland. After the war, he went on trips to Indonesia and England, where he saw cultures that differed from his own. Those early experiences with cultural differences influenced his research interests later in life. At Delft Technical University,* he studied engineering, and he later earned a doctorate in social psychology from Groningen University.*"-- Erdman, study guide to Hofstede's "Culture's Consequences"

"Author's Background The German occupation of Hofstede's homeland duringWorldWar II affected him in several ways. He lived under Nazi* ideology, the extreme right-wing ideology that defined Germany in the war years, largely distinguished by its support for its murderous anti-Semitism (prejudice against Jewish people) and racial hierarchies. These ideas contradicted Hofstede's own values, influenced by his Dutch upbringing, and made him aware of national differences for the first time."-- Erdman, study guide to Hofstede's "Culture's Consequences"

"Analysis: Germans are somewhat higher on uncertainty avoidance than the Dutch. For the German students, finding the truth is a very important and desirable thing. In fact it is so important to them that they are willing to spend their night out trying to determine it. They do not think ill of interrupting each other in a discussion; in fact by interrupting they show that they are listening and involved. When they try to convince somebody of their own opinion, they are doing that person the honor of taking him or her seriously. They argue with some ve-hemence. In their lives they also try to get rid of ambiguity; they do not go into a pub with a girl if she is not clearly “the” girlfriend; they do not take on different roles in different situations. This moderate difference in uncertainty avoidance between the two countries is conspicuous for the Dutch storyteller because she is Dutch herself and perceives what is different."-- Hofstede & Pedersen, "Exploring Culture"

"Americans, Anglo-Canadians, British, Irish, Germans, and others who are culturally direct, individualistic, egalitarian, and assertive) from the country of Richland attempt to train workers in a manufacturing plant in the Third World (Randömia) to achieve greater efficiency and product quality. The plant employees are culturally indirect, collectivist, harmonious, and hierarchical—characteristics that are shared among many nonin-dustrialized countries. The training fails, of course."-- Hofstede & Pedersen, "Exploring Culture"

"Germans are appreciably more specific, if not as specific as the Poles or the Japanese. Once again there are no very clear rules by continent, al-"-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Riding the Waves of Culture"

"Kurt Lewin,! the German-American psychologist, represented the per- sonality as a series of concentric circles with "life spaces" or "personality levels" between. The most personal and private spaces are near the cen- ter. The most shared and public spaces are at the outer peripheries. As a German-Jewish refugee in the USA, Lewin was able to contrast U-type (American) life spaces with G-type (German) life spaces. These are illus- trated in Figure 7.1."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Riding the Waves of Culture"

"Germany, where accounting has a scientific sta- tus. In France, the German system was introduced by the German occupants during World War II, and its scientific claims were so well received that it remained the French standard systéme comptable ever since. In low-UAI countries, sys- tems are more pragmatic, ad hoc, and folkloristic. In the United States, tendencies to accept ac- counting traditions as established facts have re- sisted attempts to base them on general postu- lates. In Germany, annual reports to shareholders are supposed to use the same valuation of the com- pany’s assets as is used for fiscal purposes; in the Dutch, British, and U.S. systems, reports to the tax authorities are unrelated to reports to share- holders."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"88. The German Swiss sociologist Ernest Zahn (1984, p. 67), who taught at the University of Amster- dam for 20 years, has remarked that (unlike in Germany) conceding to an opponent is not perceived in the Nether- lands as a lack of firmness, nor is confrontation per- ceived as a sign of courage."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"The German soldier in our story has probably spent long years revisit- ing his war experiences. In his old age he has redefined himself as belong- ing to the same moral circle as the churchgoer whose bicycle he took The Rules of the Social Game 13"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"ment in France, Germany, and Great Britain. According to the criteria set by the U.S. designers of planning and control systems, British managers did a better job of strategic planning than their German and French coun- terparts; the latter two focused on details and short-term feedback. Yet the national economies of France and Germany at that time did at least as well as those of the United Kingdom and the United States. Mintzberg, himself a Canadian, has expressed strong skepticism about the effects of strategic planning.21 Rituals are effective for those who believe in them."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"The Germans live in Germany, the Romans live in Rome, the Turkeys live in Turkey; but the English live at home."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"The majority of the Germans diagnosed the case as a lack of structure. The scope of responsibility of the two conflicting department heads had never been clearly laid down. The solution preferred by the Germans was the establishment of procedures. Possible ways to develop these procedures included calling in a consultant, nominating a task force, and asking the common boss. The Germans, Stevens felt, saw an organization ideally as a "well-oiled machine" in which management intervention is limited to exceptional cases because the rules should settle all daily problems."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Take the story of a German engineering firm installing an irrigation system in an African country. Overcoming serious technical difficulties, the engineers constructed an effective and easy-to-operate system. They provided all the necessary documentation for later use and repairs, trans- lated into English and Swahili. Then they left. Four months later the sys- tem broke down, and it was never repaired. The local authority structure had not had an opportunity to adopt the project as its family property; the project had no local "master."41"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Max Weber (18641920) was a German academic with university training in law and some years' experience as a civil servant. He became a professor of economics and a founder of German sociology. Weber quotes a seventeenth-century Puritan Protestant Christian textbook about "the sinfulness of the belief in authority, which is only permissible in the form of an impersonal authority."8 In his own design for an organization, Weber describes the bureaucracy. The word was originally a joke, a classic Greek ending grafted on a modern French stem. Nowadays it has a distinctly negative connotation, but to Weber it represented the ideal type for any large organization. About the authority in a bureaucracy, Weber wrote:"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Let us now take the case of Germany. This is also a below-average PDI country, so the dialogue element in MBO should present no problem. However, Germany scored considerably higher on UAI; consequently, the acceptance of ambiguity is weaker. MBO in Germany has been strongly formalized and converted into "management by joint goal setting."60"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Before and during World War II many German and Austrian sci- entists of Jewish descent or who were otherwise anti-Nazi fled their countries, mostly to Britain and the United States. Examples are Albert Einstein, Sigmund Freud, Karl Popper, Kurt Lewin, and Theodor Adorno. This "brain injection" has been highly beneficial to the host countries. The younger among the refugees have made substantial contributions to their scientific fields in the new country. They brought synergy between the Middle European taste for theory (rooted in strong uncertainty avoidance) and the Anglo-American sense of empiricism fostered by weak uncertainty avoidance."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"From 1940 to 1945, during World War II, Germany occupied the Neth- erlands. In April 1945, German troops withdrew in disorder, confiscating many bicycles from the Dutch population. In April 2009, the Parish Coun- cil of the Saint-Catharina church in the Dutch town of Nijkerk received a letter from a former German soldier who, on his flight to Germany from the advancing Canadians, had taken a bike that was parked in front of the church. The letter's author wished to make amends and asked the Parish Council to trace the owner or his heirs, in order to refund the injured party for the damage.8"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Anneke went to school with Hilde. Her German improved rapidly. On Sundays she went to Mass with the Riedls, who were pious Roman Catholics. Anneke was a Protestant, but she did not mind; she liked the experience and the singing. She had taken her violin along to Austria, and after school she played pieces for violin and piano with Hilde."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"word masculine to distinguish the German style from the French. At the same time, he recognized that the Germans maintained greater equality among customers.86"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"The two other countries in Table 9.2, China and Germany, were the most dissimilar from the international average. China's profile neverthe- less resembled India's in a number of respects. Both China and India put patriotism much higher than average, together with power, and both rated this year's profits and staying within the law less important than aver- age. Notable differences between China and India were that China placed respecting ethical norms even higher than the United States, while India put it at the bottom. China also rated responsibility toward society in gen- eral much more important than average, as well as face (the Chinese term for honor and reputation); face surpassed personal wealth, which was rated much less important."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"In stronger uncertainty-avoidance countries such as Germany and France, accounting systems not only will be more detailed, as argued pre- viously, but also will to a larger extent be theoretically based--claiming to derive from consistent general economic principles. In weak uncertainty- avoidance countries, systems will be more pragmatic, ad hoc, and folklor- istic. We already cited the example of the generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP) in the United States. In Germany and Japan, annual reports to shareholders are supposed to use the same valuation of the com- pany's assets as is used for fiscal purposes; in the Dutch, British, and U.S. systems, reports to the fiscal authorities are a completely different thing from reports to shareholders."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"languages were French or Italian, with native German speakers taking a middle position.7"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"In the 1960s Arndt Sorge did his military service in the West German army. Near his hometown, where he spent his free weekends, there were barracks of the British "Army on the Rhine." Sorge was keen on watching British motion pictures with the original sound track, which were shown in the British barracks, and he walked up to the sentry to ask whether he, as a German soldier, could attend. The sentry referred him to the sergeant of the guard, who called the second in command on the telephone and then tore a page out of a notebook, on which he wrote, "Mr Arndt Sorge has permission to attend film shows," and signed it, adding that permission was granted by the second in command."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"A French study of top-management control in British, French, and German companies by Jacques Horovitz concluded that in Britain top managers occupied themselves more with strategic problems and less with daily operations; in France and Germany the reverse was the case.41 In the IBM studies, France and Germany scored considerably higher on UAI than Britain (86 and 65, respectively, versus 35). Strategic problems, being by definition unstructured, demand a greater tolerance for ambigu- ity than do operational problems. During the period in which Horovitz did his study, the French and German economies did better than the British, so weak uncertainty avoidance leading to more strategic planning does not necessarily increase business effectiveness. Strategic planning in these countries is rather a matter of faith. The economic success of companies and countries depends on many more factors."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"between France, Spain, and Portugal on one side and Britain, Germany, and Italy on the other can be interpreted as different outcomes of this process."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"centages attributing poverty to having been unlucky varied from 14 per- cent in Germany to 33 percent in the Netherlands; they were significantly negatively correlated with MAS.62 The percentages attributing poverty to laziness varied from 10 percent in the Netherlands to 25 percent in Greece and Luxembourg; these results were positively correlated with MAS. In masculine countries, more people believe that the fate of the poor is their own fault; that if they would work harder, they would not be poor; and that the rich certainly should not pay to support them."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Erasmus of Rotterdam in his Colloquia of 1524 compared the service in French and German inns--both of which he knew from experience. He referred to the charming behavior of French innkeepers' wives and daugh- ters, the quality of the food, and French savoir vivre. He opposed this to German strictness, inflexibility, and lack of manners. He actually used the He, She, and (S)he 183"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Scientific disputes sometimes hide cultural assumptions. A famous example is the discussion between the German physicist Albert Einstein (18791955) and his Danish colleague Niels Bohr (18851962) on whether certain processes inside the atom are governed by laws or random. "I can- not imagine God playing dice," Einstein is supposed to have said. Bohr could; recent research has proved him right, not Einstein. Denmark scores very low on uncertainty avoidance (rank 74, score 23)."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Table 9.2 shows the profiles for five important economies: the United States, India, Brazil, China, and Germany. The scores for the United States were produced by M.B.A. students from five universities in different regions of the country; the five produced almost identical goal rankings. Their consensus ranking closely resembled the seventeen-country average from Table 9.1; none of the other sixteen countries came closer. Four of the top five goals--growth, personal wealth, this year's profits, and power-- were rated even more important for U.S. business leaders than for their colleagues elsewhere. In the past half century, U.S. business has grown into a model for global business; the master of business administration course is an American invention."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"tries differ in their tolerance of the ambiguous and the unpredictable. In the IBM research, Britain and Germany score exactly alike on the two dimensions of power distance (both 35) and masculinity (both 66). On individualism, though, the British score considerably higher (89 versus 67). The largest difference between the two countries, however, is on a fourth dimension, labeled uncertainty avoidance."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Failing in school is a disaster in a masculine culture. In strongly mas- culine countries such as Japan and Germany, the newspapers carry reports each year about students who killed themselves after failing an examina- tion. In a 1973 insider story, a Harvard Business School graduate reported four suicides--one teacher, three students--during his time at this elite American institution.33 Failure in school in a feminine culture is a relatively minor incident. When young people in these cultures take their lives, it tends to be for reasons unrelated to performance."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"GESTALT: an integrated whole that should be studied as such and that loses its meaning when divided into parts; from a German word meaning "form.""-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"In countries with strong uncertainty avoidance, there tend to be more-- and more precise--laws than in those with weak uncertainty avoidance. Germany, for example, has laws for the event that all other laws become unenforceable (Notstandsgesetze), while Britain does not even have a written constitution. Labor-management relations in Germany have been codified in detail, while attempts to pass an Industrial Relations Act in Britain have never succeeded."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"One dilemma Geert experienced when teaching in the ITP was choos- ing the proper amount of structure to be put into the various activities. Most Germans, for example, favored structured learning situations with precise objectives, detailed assignments, and strict timetables. They liked situations in which there was one correct answer that they could find. They expected to be rewarded for accuracy. These preferences are typical for stronger uncertainty-avoidance countries. Most British participants, on the other hand, despised too much structure. They liked open-ended learning situations with vague objectives, broad assignments, and no time- tables at all. The suggestion that there could be only one correct answer was taboo with them. They expected to be rewarded for originality. Their reactions are typical for countries with weak uncertainty avoidance."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"What holds for religions applies also to political ideologies that can become secular neoreligions. Marxism in many places has been an exam- ple. When East Germany was still solidly communist, the facade of the University of Leipzig was decorated with an enormous banner reading "Der Marxismus ist allmchtig, weil er wahr ist! " ("Marxism is all-powerful because it is true!")67 In strong uncertainty-avoidance cultures, we find intolerant political ideologies; in weak uncertainty-avoidance cultures, we find tolerant ones. The respect for what are commonly called human rights assumes a tolerance for people with different political ideas. Violation of human rights in some countries is rooted in the strong uncertainty avoid- ance within their cultures. In other countries it is rather an outcome of a power struggle (and related to power distance) or of collectivist intergroup strife."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"In all human societies, children have to learn an amount of self-restraint and deferment of gratification in order to be accepted as civilized per- sons. The German sociologist Norbert Elias (18971990) described self- control and developing a longer-term view on life as essential steps in the civilization process.8 Within societies, deferment of gratification increases with social class: children of lower classes seek more immediate reward in Yesterday, Now, or Later? 241"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Sorge used his privilege not only on that occasion but also several other times, and the notebook page always opened the gate for him, in con- junction with his German army identity card. After he was demobilized, he asked the British sentry whether he, now as a civilian, could continue"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"ent broad conclusions unsupported by data. Manuscripts by British and American writers present extensive data analysis but shy away from bold conclusions. The Germans and French tend to reason by deduction, British and Americans by induction.69"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"In a study of "sexual harassment" in four countries in the 1990s, Bra- zilian students of both sexes differed from their colleagues in Australia, the United States, and Germany. They saw sexual harassment less as an abuse of power, less as related to gender discrimination, and more as a relatively harmless pastime.27 Brazil in the IBM research scored lower on MAS than the three other countries (49, versus 61, 62, and 66, respectively)."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"societal phenomena, Dutch readers should at least be cautioned when inter- preting U.S. data. Surprisingly, few Dutch journalists would dream of pro- ducing Japanese or German statistics with the tacit assumption that their conclusions apply in the Netherlands."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Feelings toward other nations vary not only with uncertainty avoid- ance but also with masculinity. The combination was illustrated in Figure 6.1. The Axis powers from World War II (Germany, Italy, and Japan) were all located in the lower right-hand quadrant: strong uncertainty avoid- ance plus masculinity. Under the conditions prior to the war, ethnocentric, xenophobic, and aggressive tendencies could get the upper hand in these countries more easily than in countries with different culture patterns. Fascism and racism find their most fertile ground in cultures with strong uncertainty avoidance plus pronouncedly masculine values. The paradox is that these same values in the postwar period contributed to these coun- tries' fast economic recovery. A culture's weaknesses may in different cir- cumstances become its strengths."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Corporate governance is also related to corporate financial goals. It is a naive assumption that such goals are culture free. In interviews by the Dutch researcher Jeroen Weimer with Dutch, German, and U.S. business executives, besides the subject of making profits, the Dutch talked about assets, the Germans about independence from banks, and the Americans about shareholder value.36 This diversity reflects the institutional differ- ences among the countries (the strong role of banks in Germany, for exam- ple) as well as the prevailing ideologies (the shareholder as a culture hero in the United States)."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Masculinity or femininity in democratic politics is not just a matter of policy priorities; it is also reflected in the informal rules of the political game. In masculine cultures such as Britain, Germany, and the United States, the style of political discourse is strongly adversarial. This is not a recent phenomenon. In 1876 the Dutch-language newspaper De Standaard reported that "the American political parties eschewed no means to sling mud at their adversaries, in a way which foreigners find disgusting."72 This statement is still valid today. In feminine cultures such as the Nordic countries and the Netherlands, governments are nearly always coalitions between different parties that treat each other relatively gently."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Two U.S. researchers, Ellen Jackofsky and John Slocum, analyzed descriptions of chief executives in the management press in five countries. French CEOs were described as taking autocratic initiatives (high PDI); Germans as stressing the training and responsibilities of their managers and workers (low PDI, high UAI); Japanese as practicing patience and let- ting the organization run itself, aiming at long-term market share (high LTO); Swedes as taking entrepreneurial risks and at the same time caring for their people's quality of working life (low UAI, low MAS); and the one Taiwanese CEO in the sample as stressing hard work and the family (high LTO, low IDV).47"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Arndt Sorge became an organization sociologist, and he remembers this experience as an example of how differently the British seemed to handle such an unplanned request in comparison with what he was accus- tomed to in the German army. The Germans would have taken more time and would have needed the permission of more authorities; they would have asked for more information about the applicant and issued a more formal document. Finally, the document would have been issued to him as a member of the armed forces, and there would have been no possibility of his using it after his demobilization.1"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Culture is present in the design and quality of many products and in the presentation of many services. An example is the difference in the design of the cockpit in passenger aircraft between Airbus (European, primarily French or German) and Boeing (U.S.). The Airbus has been designed to fly itself with minimum interference from the pilot, while the Boeing design expects more discretion from and interaction with the pilot.25 The Airbus is 410 I M P L IC AT ION S"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"In 2005 a New Yorkbased market research company studied the ide- als of beauty and body image among fifteen- to seventeen-year-old girls, through telephone interviews in cities in ten countries around the world: Brazil, Canada, China, Germany, Great Britain, Italy, Japan, Mexico, Saudi Arabia, and the United States. One question asked who had the most pow- erful influence on their beauty ideals. In collectivist cultures, the respon- dents most often referred to girlfriends--their in-group; in individualist cultures, they most often referred to boys (in general).33"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"These differences are partly reflected in rates of imprisonment--the share of the population that is locked up in a penitentiary institution. In 2002 this share ranged from 690 per 100,000 inhabitants in the United States, to 140 in Britain, 85 in Germany, 65 in Sweden, and 45 in Japan.27 Worldwide, rates of imprisonment relate primarily to national poverty (they are higher in poorer countries), but this variable cannot explain the huge differences between equally wealthy countries. We believe that these differences are affected by what these societies consider the purpose of punishment. The short-term solution is to protect society by locking crimi- nals away. The long-term solution is to reform criminals and recycle them into productive citizens. If good and evil are clearly separated, evil people should be locked away. If good and evil reside within every person, those who committed evil should learn to be good."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Without knowing the language, one will miss a lot of the subtleties of a culture and be forced to remain a relative outsider. One of these subtleties is humor. What is considered funny is highly culture-specific. Many Euro- peans are convinced that Germans have no sense of humor, but this simply means they have a different sense of humor. In intercultural encounters the experienced traveler knows that jokes and irony are taboo until one is absolutely sure of the other culture's conception of what represents humor."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"In the area of philosophy and science,68 grand theories are more likely to be conceived within strong uncertainty-avoidance cultures than in weak uncertainty avoidance ones. The quest for Truth is an essential motivator for a philosopher. In Europe, Germany and France have produced more great philosophers than Britain and Sweden (for example, Descartes, Kant, Hegel, Marx, Nietzsche, and Sartre). Weak uncertainty-avoidance cultures have produced great empiricists, people developing conclusions from obser- vation and experiments rather than from pure reflection (such as Newton, Linnaeus, and Darwin)."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Studies of the satisfaction and productivity of subordinates under dif- ferent types of leaders show the influence of national cultures. French IBM technicians were most satisfied when they saw their boss as persuasive or paternalistic, unlike their British and German colleagues, who more often liked consultative and democratic bosses. Workers from Peru liked close supervision, unlike similar workers from the United States. Indian assistants showed the highest satisfaction and performance when working under foremen who behaved like elder brothers. What represents appropri- ate leadership in one setting does not have to be appropriate for a differ- ently programmed group of subordinates.49"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Language and culture are not so closely linked that sharing a language implies sharing a culture, nor should a difference in language always impose a difference in cultural values. In Belgium, where Dutch and French are the two dominant national languages (there is a small German-speaking area 390 I M PLICAT IONS"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"similar to the one presented at the beginning of this chapter. This case, too, dealt with a conflict between two department heads within a company. Among the INSEAD M.B.A. (master of business administration) students taking the exam, the three largest national contingents were the French, the Germans, and the British. In Figure 9.1 we find their countries in the lower right, lower left, and upper left quadrants, respectively."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"European countries in which the native language is Romance (French, Ital- ian, Portuguese, Romanian, Spanish) scored medium to high on the power distance scale (in Table 3.1. from 50 for Italy to 90 for Romania). Euro- pean countries in which the native language is Germanic (Danish, Dutch, English, German, Norwegian, Swedish) scored low (from 11 in Austria to 40 in Luxembourg). There seems to be a relationship between language area and present-day mental software regarding power distance. The fact that a country belongs to a language area is rooted in history: Romance More Equal than Others 83"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"tions is a system of formal rules on which everybody can rely. French books usually stress the exercise of power and sometimes the defenses of the indi- vidual against being crushed by the pyramid.17 The principle of control is hierarchical authority; there is a system of rules, but contrary to the German case, the personal authority of the superiors prevails over the rules."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"A highly visible international project that is a combination of a stra- tegic alliance and a joint venture is the Airbus consortium in Toulouse, France. Airbus has become one of the two largest aircraft manufacturers in the world. Parts of the planes are manufactured by the participating com- panies in Britain, Germany, and Spain and then flown over to Toulouse, where the planes are assembled."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Countries with weak uncertainty avoidance can show the opposite, an emotional horror of formal rules. People think that rules should be established only in case of absolute necessity, such as to determine whether traffic should keep left or right. They believe that many problems can be solved without formal rules. Germans, coming from a fairly uncertainty- avoiding culture, are impressed by the public discipline shown by the Brit- ish in forming neat queues at bus stops and in shops. There is no law in Britain governing queuing behavior; it is based on a public habit continu- ously reinforced by social control. The paradox here is that although rules in countries with weak uncertainty avoidance are less sacred, they are often better followed."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"In research on cultural differences, nationality--the passport one holds--should therefore be used with care. Yet it is often the only fea- sible criterion for classification. Rightly or wrongly, collective properties are ascribed to the citizens of certain countries: people refer to "typically American," "typically German," and "typically Japanese" behavior. Using nationality as a criterion is a matter of expediency, because it is immensely easier to obtain data for nations than for organic homogeneous societies. Nations as political bodies supply all kinds of statistics about their popula- tions. Survey data (that is, the answers people give on paper-and-pencil 22 THE CONCEPT OF CULTURE"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"It is noteworthy that symbolic personalities representing Western countries in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries were gendered accord- ing to their cultures' masculinity or femininity: John Bull for Britain and Uncle Sam for the United States but Marianne89 for France and the Dutch maiden (called Frau Antje in Germany) for the Netherlands."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"described her personal experiences as a patient in Britain, France, Ger- many, and the United States. One of her examples is that low blood pres- sure is seen as a reason for living longer (and maybe getting a lower life insurance premium) in Britain and the United States, but it is treated as a disorder in (higher UAI) Germany, where several drugs are on the mar- ket to cure it.21 A comparative study of doctor-patient interactions in ten European countries showed that doctors in uncertainty-tolerant countries on average had more eye contact with the patient and paid more attention to rapport building.22 204 DI M E NSIONS OF NAT IONA L C U LT U R E S"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Effective shared practices are the reason that multinational corpora- tions can function at all. Employing personnel from a variety of nation- alities, they cannot assume common values. They coordinate and control their operations through worldwide practices that are inspired by their national origin (be it U.S., Japanese, German, Dutch, etc.) but that can be learned by employees from a variety of other national origins.13"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Nevertheless, even at equal levels of per capita income, countries also preserve individualist and collectivist values from their history. East Asian societies such as Japan and Korea do conserve distinctive collectivist ele- ments in their family, school, and work spheres. Among Western countries such as Britain, Sweden, and Germany, in spite of a noticeable convergence toward individualism under the influence of common economic develop- ment, relationships between the individual and the group continue to differ. The cultures shift, but they shift together, so that their relative positions remain intact, and there is no reason why differences between them should disappear."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Students from strong uncertainty-avoidance countries expect their teachers to be the experts who have all the answers. Teachers who use cryptic academic language are respected; some of the eminent gurus from these countries write such difficult prose that one needs commentaries by more ordinary creatures explaining what the guru really meant. It has been remarked that "German students are brought up in the belief that anything which is easy enough for them to understand is dubious and probably unsci- entific."28 French academic books not infrequently contain phrases of half 206 DI M E NSIONS OF NAT IONA L C U LT U R E S"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Cultural theories that addressed the East Asian economic miracle were often criticized for failing to explain why East Asia did not achieve strong economic growth much earlier. After all, its Confucian values are extremely old. Why were they dormant for 2,500 years, triggering a miracle only in the second half of the twentieth century? The answer to this conun- drum was known to German sociologist Max Weber eighty years ago. He observed that the so-called Protestant work ethic (basically another name for the set of values related to economic growth that we discuss in this chapter) could yield results only in a specific historical period. In our case two conditions had to be satisfied:"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Figure 9.2 explains a number of national characteristics known from the professional and anecdotal literature about organizations; these are especially clear in the preferred coordination mechanisms. Mutual adjustment fits the market model of organizations and the stress on ad hoc negotiation in the Anglo countries. Standardization of skills explains the traditional emphasis in countries such as Germany and Switzerland on the professional qualification of workers and the high status in these countries of apprentice systems. Standardization of work processes fits the French concept of bureaucracy.20 Direct supervision corresponds to Chinese organizations, including those outside mainland China, which emphasize coordination through personal intervention of the owner and his relatives. Standardization of outputs is very much the preferred philosophy in the United States, even in cases in which outputs are difficult to assess."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Some of the refugees experienced scientific culture shock. Former Frankfurt sociologist Herbert Marcuse, when preaching his critique of modern society in California, met with what he labeled repressive tolerance. This is a nonsensical term, because repression and tolerance are mutually exclusive. However, the term reflects Marcuse's embarrassment at trying to provoke--and expecting--heated debate in the German style, but instead meeting with intellectual tolerance American style."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Among European Union members, Austria and other central Euro- pean countries in the IBM studies and their replications scored relatively high on uncertainty avoidance. In this part of Europe, ethnic prejudice, including anti-Semitism, has been rampant for centuries. Until the 1930s there was a large Jewish community in Vienna. Many of the leading Aus- trian scholars were Jewish, among them Sigmund Freud. In 1936, Nazi Germany invaded Austria. Large numbers of Jewish Austrians fled, many to the United States. Those who did not perished in the Nazi holocaust. Since 1945 there have been few Jews in Austria.64 Our true story shows that prejudice can survive, perhaps even thrive unchecked, long after its object has disappeared."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Stevens had noticed earlier that the students' nationality seemed to affect their way of handling this case. He had kept a file of the examination work of about two hundred students, in which, with regard to the case in question, the students had written down, individually, (1) their diag- nosis of the problem and (2) their suggested solution. Stevens had sorted these exams by the nationality of the author, and he separately reviewed all French, all German, and all British answers."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Differences among countries on uncertainty avoidance were originally discovered as a by-product of power distance. It all started with a question about job stress: "How often do you feel nervous or tense at work?"--with answers ranging from (1) I always feel this way to (5) I never feel this way. Geert had been struck by the regularity of answer patterns on this question from country to country. For example, British employees always scored less nervous than German employees, be they managers, engineers, secretar- ies, or unskilled factory workers. However, across all countries in the IBM database, differences in stress were unrelated to power distance."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Citizens in strong uncertainty-avoidance countries not only were more dependent on the expertise of the government but also seemed to feel that this was how things should be. The authorities and the citizens shared the same norms about their mutual roles. The authorities tended to think in legal terms: in high-UAI countries higher civil servants more frequently had law degrees than in low-UAI countries (a 1977 article reported 65 percent with law degrees in Germany versus 3 percent in Britain).53 Civil servants in high-UAI countries tended to have negative feelings about poli- ticians and the political process; in low-UAI countries their feelings were more positive."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Cluster 5 opposes growth to responsibility toward society in gen- eral. Table 9.1 shows that in the average ranking, growth was strongly dominant. In fact, the extent to which responsibility toward society in general was balanced against growth in a country turned out to be the main determinant of how much that country deviated from the overall average.40 Scores on cluster 5 showed that the United States, Australia, and Hong Kong most strongly focused on growth; the Netherlands, Germany, 326 C U LT U R E S I N ORGA N I Z AT ION S"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Richard Lynn, from Northern Ireland, collected data about attitudes toward competitiveness and money from male and female university students in forty-two countries. Overall, men scored higher on com- petitiveness than women. In a reanalysis, Evert van de Vliert, from the Netherlands, showed that the ratio between men's and women's scores was significantly correlated with MAS. It was lowest in Norway, where the women rated their competitiveness higher than the men, and was highest in Germany.14"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Noorderhaven, with Bassirou Tidjani from Senegal. African scientists in Africa and African students abroad were asked to suggest value survey items. Through a "Delphi" approach, the first results were anonymously fed back to the contributors, and their comments were incorporated. The questionnaire, in an English or a French version, was then administered to samples of male and female students in the African countries Cameroon, Ghana, Senegal, South Africa, Tanzania, and Zimbabwe and outside Africa in Belgium, Germany, Great Britain, Guyana, Hong Kong, Malaysia, the Netherlands, and the United States; it yielded a total of 1,100 respondents in fourteen countries.85"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"UAI scores based on the IBM studies are not available over time, and we know of no studies that have measured equivalent scores longitudinally for any population. Interesting historical information about the develop- ment of anxiety over time was supplied by Richard Lynn, whose national anxiety scores were shown earlier in this chapter to correlate with UAI. Lynn was able to follow national anxiety levels for eighteen countries from 1935 to 1970.72 The five countries with the highest anxiety scores in 1935 were Austria, Finland, Germany, Italy, and Japan (the World War II Axis powers and two countries that got involved in the war on their side). From 1935 to 1950 all countries that had been defeated or occupied during World War II (193945) increased in anxiety level, while six out of the nine coun- tries not defeated or occupied decreased. The overall average was highest in 1950, shortly after the war, and then sank to an overall low in 1965, to increase again after that."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Classic mid-twentieth-century U.S. leadership models such as Douglas McGregor's Theory Y (discussed earlier), Rensis Likert's System 4, and Robert Blake and Jane Mouton's Managerial Grid reflected small but not very small power distances (in the IBM studies, the United States ranked moderately low on PDI).53 They all advocated participative management in the sense of participation by subordinates in the superior's decisions, but at the initiative of the superior. In countries with still lower PDI values-- including Sweden, Norway, Germany, and Israel--models of management were developed that assumed the initiatives could be taken by the subor- dinates. In the United States this concept tends to be seen as infringing on management prerogatives, but in the lowest-PDI countries people do not think in those terms. A Scandinavian was cited as remarking to an American lecturer: "You are against participation for the very reason we 334 CU LT U R ES IN ORGA NIZATIONS"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Safety or security is likely to prevail over other needs where uncertainty avoidance is strong. Belongingness (human relationships) will prevail over esteem in a feminine culture, but esteem prevails over belonging in a mas- culine culture. Thus, the supreme motivators--other things such as type of work being equal--in Figure 6.1 will be achievement (of self or group) and esteem in the upper right-hand corner (United States, etc.); achievement and belongingness in the upper left-hand corner (Sweden, etc.); security and esteem in the lower right-hand corner (Japan, Germany, etc.); and security and belongingness in the lower left-hand corner (France, etc.)."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Dutch sociologist Joseph Soeters showed the similarity between the descriptions of Peters and Waterman's "excellent companies" and of social movements preaching civil rights, women's liberation, religious conver- sion, or withdrawal from civilization. In the United States itself, postcards were sold with the slogan "I'd rather be dead than excellent." In a more dispassionate way, Soeters's compatriot Cornelis Lammers showed that the "excellent companies" were simply the latest scion of an entire genealogy within organizational sociology of ideal types of "organic organizations" described already by the German sociologist Joseph Pieper in 1931, if not by others before, and reiterated in the sociological literature on both sides of the Atlantic.7"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"In a similar way within countries in the right-hand half of Figure 9.1, "supervision" should not be seen as a hygienic factor. When power dis- tances are large, dependence on more powerful people is a basic need that can be a real motivator. In the lower right-hand corner, incorporating most Latin countries, the motivator could be labeled the boss in the sense of the formally appointed superior. At INSEAD business school in Fontainebleau (where Stevens did his analysis reported earlier in this chapter), leaderless discussion groups composed entirely of French participants were known to often waste time in internal fights for leadership at the expense of pro- ductivity, unlike groups of German or British students and also unlike internationally mixed groups including French participants."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"The manner in which animals learn has been much studied in recent years, with a great deal of patient observation and experiment. Certain results have been obtained as regards the kinds of problems that have been investi- gated, but on general principles there is still much controversy. One may say broadly that all the animals that have been carefully observed have behaved so as to confirm the philosophy in which the observer believed before his observations began. Nay, more, they have all displayed the national charac- teristics of the observer. Animals studied by Americans rush about franti- cally, with an incredible display of hustle and pep, and at last achieve the desired result by chance. Animals observed by Germans sit still and think, 48 THE CONCEPT OF CULTURE"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"The concentration of feminine cultures in northwestern Europe (Den- mark, Finland, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden) points to common his- torical factors. The elites in these countries consisted to a large extent of traders and seafarers. In trading and sailing, maintaining good inter- personal relationships and caring for the ships and the merchandise are essential virtues. The Viking period in the Scandinavian countries (a.d. 8001000) also meant that the women had to manage the villages while the men were away on their long trips; however, Vikings did not settle in the Netherlands for any length of time. The Hanseatic League (a.d. 12001500) covered all northwestern European countries, including the free cities of Hamburg, Bremen, and Lbeck in northern Germany and the Baltic states. The Hansa was a free association of trading towns in which women played an important role:"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Strong uncertainty avoidance leading to intolerance of deviants and minorities has at times been costly to countries. The expulsion of the Jews from Spain and Portugal by the Catholic kings after the Reconquista of the Iberian Peninsula from the Moors (1492) has deprived these countries of some of their most enterprising citizens and is believed to have contrib- uted to the decadence of the empire in the following centuries. One group of Iberian Jews settled in the Netherlands and played an important role in the seventeenth-century Dutch colonial expansion. Others went to Costa Rica, which even today is a favorable exception to Latin American person- alismo and stagnation (see Chapter 4). In more recent history the exodus of top scientists, many of them Jewish, from Hitler's Germany enabled the Americans to develop the atomic bomb."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"In the first study, some eight hundred U.S. and eight hundred Dutch youngsters, aged eleven to eighteen, completed questionnaires about their personal competencies and problems. The Americans reported many more problems and competencies than the Dutch. Some items on which Ameri- cans scored higher were "argues a lot," "can do things better than most kids," "stores up unneeded things," and "acts without thinking." The only item on which the Dutch scored higher was "takes life easy." Reports by parents and teachers showed no difference in problem behavior by these children, but U.S. parents rated their children's competencies higher than Dutch parents did.39 Young people in U.S. society have been socialized to boost their egos: they take both their problems and their competencies seriously.40 Young people in the Netherlands are socialized rather to efface the ego. An earlier comparison between the U.S. and (masculine) Germany had not found such differences."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Consider time. While the time system in American culture has not been developed to the extremes that one finds in Swit- zerland and Germany, time is the dominant organizing princi- ple in the culture. Time started as a natural series of rhythms as- sociated with daily, monthly, and annual cycles. It is now imposed as an outside constraint and sends its tentacles into every nook and crevice of even our most private acts (bowel movements and sex are regulated by the clock and the calen- dar). As many of the young have discovered, our time system has done much to alienate Western man from himself. A reason for people getting sick is to escape the shackles of time and to re- turn and re-experience their own rhythms, but at what price!"-- Edward T. Hall, "Beyond Culture"

"Fovea. See Eye Tokyo, 29, 50, 53, 58, 141 French culture, 1, 185, 220-21 Kyoto, 51 Justice. See Law language, 80, 114-15 Kentucky feud. See American culture legal system examined for high-low Kinesics, context, 94-96, 98 and synchrony, 61-62, 66 German culture, 1, 35, 37, 79, 80, 119 Girard case, the. See Japanese culture defined, 65 Grammar. See Language Kyoto. See Japanese culture Heisenberg's principle of uncertainty, Latin America, 2, 14, 16, 19, 24, 222 110 Law, 77, 92-93 Hoffer, Eric, American, Japanese, French systems imaging and writing, 158 contrasted for context, 92-99, Holography, 220"-- Edward T. Hall, "Beyond Culture"

"The Kentucky feud is a case in point; so are the vendettas of southern Italy. The Trukese, who occupy islands in a South Pacific atoll, were captives of a system of vengeful warfare that they were unable either to circumvent or stop until outsiders in- tervened when the islands were annexed by the Spanish and later the Germans in the nineteenth century. When dealing with both Arabs and people of Spanish heritage (the two are culturally related), one has to be very careful to avoid any action that will push them into a "spite pattern," for once the spite syndrome is entered, there is no relief.?7 Logic and persuasion normally fail unless there is strong intervention by a third party. 130 BEYOND CULTURE"-- Edward T. Hall, "Beyond Culture"

"Politics is part of life--beginning in the home and becoming more and more visible as power is manifest in the larger institu- tions on the local, the national, and the international levels. We should not be fooled by either politics or political institutions. What we are talking about here is power and its use. But there is more to life than sheer power; at least, one hopes that in time the power motive will diminish. Apart from power, culture still plays a prominent role in the relations between the Russians and the West. Culture has always been an issue, not only be- tween Europe and Russia, but among the European states as well. The Germans, the French, the Italians, the Spanish, Por- tuguese and English, as well as the Scandinavian and Balkan cultures all have their own unique identity, language, systems of nonverbal communication, material culture, history, and way of Zz Introduction"-- Edward T. Hall, "Beyond Culture"

"know-how, to assess the prognosis for success in the future. Promptness is also valued highly in American life. If people are not prompt, it is often taken either as an insult or as an indication that they are not quite responsible. There are those, of a psychological bent, who would say that we are obsessed with time. They can point to individuals in American culture who are literally time-ridden. And even the rest of us feel very strongly about time because we have been taught to take it so seriously. We have stressed this aspect of culture and developed it to a point unequaled anywhere in the world, except, perhaps, in Switzerland and north Germany. Many people criticize our obsessional handling of tune. They attribute ulcers and hypertension to the pressure engendered by such a system. Perhaps they are right."-- Edward T. Hall, "The Silent Language"

"entist tries to illustrate formal patterns and is of necessity restricted to a bit of a communication torn out of context, he has to deal with people who take great pleasure in saying such things as, “Oh yes, but in the United States people cry when they are happy too.” This is quite true. But the fact is that we think it is “natural" to cry when sad and ‘ laugh when happy. Luckily, as I have pointed out, formal - patterns often offer a great deal of leeway in the way in which they can be expressed. The boundaries are usually well known by everyone concerned, and as long as they are not violated there is considerable range of variation allowed. The principal difference between the German and the Austrian illustrates this point. The German tends to he more tech- nical in the restrictions he places upon himself, the Austrian"-- Edward T. Hall, "The Silent Language"

"Ralph Nader, 75 IBM, 45, 46; individualism vs. com- Germany: and concept of teamwork, munitarianism at, 10810"-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"Earlier American settlers attacked the symbols of the new immigrants-- German brews, Irish whiskey, Italian Chianti, and alcoholic drinks im- bibed by recent immigrants from Southern Europe--even then crowding cities like Chicago and New York. The Eighteenth Amendment pitted Main Street against Wall Street, the idyllic small town against the "wicked cities," those left behind in the new era of rapid industrialization against those benefiting therefrom."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"Bureaucracies, or Eiffel towers, are found in many countries, but the tower in Paris is of German origins and Max Weber was the first to celebrate the rational forms of bureaucracy. Both France and Germany put great stress on formal schooling and education but thereafter rely on an "expert culture" which tends to be ascriptive and rule-bound. You achieve because of your expert status. It is ex- pected and taken for granted. When Americans shower experts with congratu- lations, it is seen as redundant and as hype. A soft "pas mal" ("not bad") is all that is necessary to confirm a professional's status."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"While Sam plays "As Time Goes By," we watch flashbacks of the Parisian idyll of Rick and Ilsa, enraptured in a doomed city with the Germans clos- ing in. They agree to take the last train from Paris to Marseilles. But mo- ments before the train leaves, Sam delivers Ilsa's message. She cannot come. She cannot tell him why. She loves him. The falling rain makes the ink run down the paper."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"Do its members locate themselves in a shared public space or in mutual private spaces? The distinction, carefully drawn in Figure 5.12, derives from the work of the German-American psychologist Kurt Levin, who compared U-type culture (American) with G-type culture (German)."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"are a danger to the whole world. Communitarianism is used to forge such cultures into lethal fighting weapons, and their victims are numbered in the millions--in Nazi Germany, the Soviet Union, and Maoist China (Fig- ure 3.6)."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"A Story Told by an Achieving Culture When George Bernard Shaw wrote his play Pygmalion between 1912 and 1913, Great Britain was at the zenith of world achievement. The play opened in Vienna, in German, in 1913 and at Her Majesty's Theatre in Lon- don in April 1914, three months before the outbreak of World War I. When Alan Jay Lerner and Frederick Loewe adapted the story as a musical in 1956 and as a movie in 1964, entitled My Fair Lady, the United States was at the zenith of achievement, commanding 18 percent of all world trade. Pygmalion is based on the Greek myth about the prince and gifted sculp- tor of that name who fell in love with Aphrodite, but she rejected the ad-"-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"One result of operating in public or in private space is that existing rela- tionships may be very tenacious in the face of new specific data and prom- ises. We recall a salesperson from an American electronics company in Germany who proved to a customer, using industry figures, that his prod- uct was measurably superior. Why did he not win the account immedi- ately?"-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"votes delivered by intoxicated mobs rounded up by political bosses. But if we note how people actually behaved, we see that this was a struggle be- tween older, rural-based immigrants to America against the urban influx of newer Irish, German, and southern European immigrants. The attack was upon them as new, "less moral" immigrants. The amendment was later repealed."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"That Rick will not compromise his security for anyone in "this nest of vultures" is made clear when Ugarte, a "cut-rate parasite" who sells visas to desperate refugees, gives Rick, for safe keeping, two letters of transit stolen from murdered German couriers. When the police, headed by Captain Louis Renault, the Vichy government's prefect of police, arrest Ugarte in the bar, Rick refuses him a hiding place."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"Note that once again the dual axis has become a box, with time synchro- nized in cultural space as the fourth and crucial dimension. This chart was actually used to monitor team sponsorship by Martin Gillo at AMD's fabri- cation plant for microprocessors in Dresden. Among most East Germans and some West Germans, the idea of sponsoring the freedom and empow- erment of teams was unfamiliar, although not necessarily unwelcome. That the "Dresden Fab" is now the flagship of AMD's plants worldwide is not unconnected with training in the sponsored autonomy of teams."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"The great strength of American Universalism is its tolerance for diver- sity. When the United States welcomed Albert Einstein to its shores it not only protested anti-Semitism, it included a scientist who would eventually advise Roosevelt on the potential of atomic weapons. What might have been German science and weaponry became American."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"Note that the acquired company can also prove unruly and impetuous. This typically happens when a clearing bank like Barclays takes over an investment bank like BZW. The acquired company is more dynamic, smarter, and closer to the leading edge than its parent. Thus when West Deutsche Landesbank, a regional, government-owned German wholesale bank, took over Pamuir Gordon, a small city brokerage in London, the lat- ter proved restive. Personnel often demand salaries, bonuses, or equity shares larger than their owners pay themselves. Such an acquisition tends to be a runaway company (shown at bottom right of Figure 10.3)."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"In Figure 9.1A executives in different nations reject the proposition that "Without the right breaks one cannot be an effective leader." The United States and Canada reject this most strongly. China and Indonesia reject this the least, with 61 percent of the Chinese agreeing that "the right breaks" are necessary. Similarly, 88 percent of Canadians, 80 percent of Americans, and 83 percent of Germans agree that "Trusting to fate never turned out well" (Figure 9.1B), but only 32 percent of Singaporeans and 49 percent of Japanese agreed with this statement. Canadians and Ameri- cans, 42 percent and 38 percent, respectively, claim "There is no such"-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"In an attempt to prevent conflict in Europe following the war, a number of European countries began to focus on integrating economically. The Treaty of Rome,* signed in 1957 by Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands, created the European Economic Community (EEC),* which aimed to regulate the prices of goods and remove or standardize international tariffs. Under the Merger Treaty* of 1965, the EEC, European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), and the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom) united the participating European countries into a single institutional structure that decades later would lead to the formation of the European Union*--an international union defined by political and economic ties among the majority of European nations.In the following years,this increased international cooperation spread into areas of justice, social organization, agriculture, labor, international politics, and culture across Europe."-- Erdman, study guide to Hofstede's "Culture's Consequences"

"Author's Life Geert Hofstede was born in 1928 in the city of Haarlem in Holland and he spent much of his early life and career in the Netherlands. From his youth, his middle-class parents encouraged "knowledge and intellectual exercise."3 He and his family lived under the German occupation of the Netherlands during World War II, and after the war"-- Erdman, study guide to Hofstede's "Culture's Consequences"

"As globalization increased in the 1930s through to the 1950s, many scholars attempted to study national character (an earlier approach to studying national cultures) to understand how members of the international community might better fit together. For example, the US government commissioned the American anthropologist Ruth Benedict* to study Germany, Japan, and Russia during and after World War II* to understand the psychological make-up of America's enemies.4 However,by the mid-1950s,interest in the subject began to decline, and problems with the approach became apparent. In some cases, the mental programming and historical influences of cultures were ignored, stereotypes* (that is, unhelpful over-generalizations without a factual basis) were perpetuated, and ethnocentrism* (placing value judgments on other societies) was difficult to overcome."-- Erdman, study guide to Hofstede's "Culture's Consequences"

"Values: preferred or desirable conditions or states of being that a group of people share, and that institutional structures like the family or educational systems foster over time. World War II: a conflict fought from 1939 to 1945 that involved virtually every major country on earth. Fought between the Allies (the United States, Britain, France, the Soviet Union and others), and the Axis powers (Germany, Italy and Japan, along with their allies), it was seen as a major moral struggle between freedom and tyranny and included seminal events such as the Holocaust. Xenophobia: the fear or dislike of strangers from other countries; it can be associated with racism or stereotyping."-- Erdman, study guide to Hofstede's "Culture's Consequences"

"Spot the concept: In this account the key concepts for the German students are truth, clarity, right, and wrong. They want order in their opinions and in their private lives."-- Hofstede & Pedersen, "Exploring Culture"

"ings, too, differences between the two cultures can occur. The Dutch may take offense if they are interrupted by Germans; they may feel that the Germans are not letting them finish talking, while in fact the Germans may just be trying to show a genuine interest by starting to argue. On the other hand, the Germans might take offense if the Dutch fail to counter their arguments and try to settle for compromises instead of yielding to the force of normative arguments."-- Hofstede & Pedersen, "Exploring Culture"

"Tiga’s daughter described a very feminine culture, whereas her aunts preferred a masculine one. Big differences exist on this continuum even among countries in the same part of the world. For example, the cultures of the Netherlands and the Scandinavian countries are very feminine, but those of Germany, Switzerland, and Austria are strongly masculine; Costa Rica and Portugal are feminine, but Colombia and most other Latin American countries are masculine; Thailand is feminine, but Japan is very masculine. Britain and the United States are also rather masculine."-- Hofstede & Pedersen, "Exploring Culture"

"The Dutch also have discussions, but in their case, the truth is less important than letting all the participants express their own opinions. Stressing one’s point of view is not considered polite. The Dutch are more relaxed and pragmatic, with an eye on resolving conflicting interests. The considerable difference in masculinity accounts for the Germans’ habit of “fighting a discussion out,” compared with the Dutch tendency to compromise."-- Hofstede & Pedersen, "Exploring Culture"

"The situation in France or Germany is quite different. You have only to note the high hedges and shuttered windows to appreciate French concern for large private spaces. If you are invited to dinner in a French home, that invitation extends to only the rooms in which that hospitality occurs. If you start wandering around the house you may offend. If your hostess goes into her study to find a book you are discussing, and you follow her, that may be considered a trespass into her private domain."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Riding the Waves of Culture"

"For all these reasons Germans may be thought of by Americans as re- mote and hard to get to know. Americans may be thought of by Germans as cheerful, garrulous, yet superficial, who let you into a very small cor- ner of their public life and regard you as peripheral."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Riding the Waves of Culture"

"Netherlands, Korea, Germany, Austria and Sweden are being developed. The Culture Compass also allows users to place the general cultural in- formation within the context of their own organization."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Riding the Waves of Culture"

"Consider another case encountered by a German engineer in South Africa. We all work for money and most of us have a sense of pride and duty in our work, but the money-duty continuum may be radically dif- ferent in different cultures. The engineer gave his maid a Christmas bonus and she promptly disappeared for two months, since as she saw it she had no need to work. He was appalled. Of course we don't know her motives: she may have felt no obligation to an employer she disliked, but a sense of duty to an employer she did like. Or perhaps being a maid is"-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Riding the Waves of Culture"

"In one of our workshops the head of strategic planning in a major German company gave a one-hour presentation on his company's strate- gic planning. He spent 45 minutes on how his firm was organized and the remaining 15 on strategic issues. Over lunch I asked him why he had not wanted to give 60 minutes to strategic issues. "But I did," was his re- ply. For him, structure was strategy."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Riding the Waves of Culture"

"While the French experience individualism more negatively, the more optimistic philosophy of Germany sees, in the words of Simmel, "an or- ganic unity of individual and society." The USA, with its vast acreage available to migrating individuals, is often seen as the world's major ex- ponent of individualism and indeed scores highest, or nearly so, on most of our research instruments. De Tocqueville, the nineteenth-century French aristocrat, described Americans as exhibiting "a strong confi- dence in self, or reliance upon one's own exertion and resources." The "Commission of National Goals" reporting to President Eisenhower claimed that the possibility of individual self-realization was the central goal of American civilization."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Riding the Waves of Culture"

"Careers in Eiffel Tower companies are much assisted by professional qualifications. At the top of German and Austrian companies, which are typically Eiffel Tower models, the titles of professor or doctor are com- mon on office doors. This is extremely rare in the USA."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Riding the Waves of Culture"

"The interweaving of ascribing and achieving orientations is a feature of the world's leading economies, Japan and Germany. Both cultures tend to confine achieving as individuals to school. Thereafter, managers are supposed to cooperate. Achievement becomes less a task for indi- viduals jostling each other for advantage than for whole groups, led by those who excelled earlier and individually."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Riding the Waves of Culture"

"International corporations are likely to have top management teams which are a microcosm of the whole system, with Germans, Dutch, French, Italian and Japanese executives at company HQ, where consider- able businesses are located in those countries. These are not "delegates" or "representatives" in a foreign country, but full-time contributors to multi-cultural management so that, say, the Italian subsidiary has its cul- tural traits not only within but at the coordinating center."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Riding the Waves of Culture"

"The most important person in the company next to Heinz was Antonio, a Colombian, designated to take over Heinz's job after the German had completed his mission. After almost a year of working in Colombia, Heinz concluded that the activities in the factory had not improved significantly despite his best efforts."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Riding the Waves of Culture"

"like the USA and Britain, are usually short-term in their business strate- gies. Communitarian cultures with a synchronic view of time, like Germany and Japan, are typically long-term strategically."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Riding the Waves of Culture"

"Universalist, or rule-based, behavior tends to be abstract. Try crossing the street when the light is red in a very rule-based society like Switzerland or Germany. Even if there is no traffic, you will still be frowned at. It also tends to imply equality in the sense that all persons falling under the rule should be treated the same. But situations are or- dered by categories. For example, if "others" to whom you "do unto" are not categorized as human, the rules may not apply. Finally, rule-based conduct has a tendency to resist exceptions that might weaken that rule. There is a fear that once you start to make exceptions for illegal conduct the system will collapse."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Riding the Waves of Culture"

"The translator's role In this and other negotiations it often becomes clear that the translator from an ascriptive culture behaves "unprofessionally" according to the standards of achieving cultures. According to British, German, North American, Scandinavian and Dutch values, the translator is an achiever like any other participant and the height of his or her achievement"-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Riding the Waves of Culture"

"dItelmTievhaeenrtIotnatlhiatatinmted,heesybiugthnaedtrhsenyoinprrMeesifpleearcnttowfeofrroeltlhogewivreitlnhaegtisaounbssjihegicnpat.liveIbtyatlidiamenelsivoaefrreithnaegblrleealtate-.o tionship than the objective time of the clock. While sequential Germans and Americans would follow the clock, Italians are very much concerned about delivering in time for you. Jan Kuipers went to Milan and be- friended the head of logistics. He discovered that in the Italians' view the contract intended to ensure on-time delivery was a reason fordelivering even later. The problem never recurred."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Riding the Waves of Culture"

"and we have significant samples for 42 countries. These show very marked distinctions. Figure 11.5 shows the results of totaling the re- sponses to the whole questionnaire. This puts the highest scores for guided missile companies in the USA and the UK, and the highest for family companies in France and Spain. Sweden scores highest for incu- bators and Germany for Eiffel Towers."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Riding the Waves of Culture"

"But this, too, proved controversial. Mr Calamier threw up his hands and said he was `shocked that on such a sensitive and important issue you seek to im- pose this decision upon a minority'' He said there really should be a consensus on this even if it took another hour. Mr. Sin agreed that `voting should be saved for trivial questions." Johnson looked to the German and Scandinavian repre- sentatives for support, but to his surprise they agreed that consensus should be given more of a chance. He was too frustrated to respond to the Dutch man-"-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Riding the Waves of Culture"

"We cannot understand why individuals and organizations act as they do without considering the meanings they attribute to their environment. "A complex market" is not an objective description so much asa cultural perception. Complex to whom? To an Ethiopian or to an American? Feedback sessions where people explore their mistakes can be "useful feedback" according to American management culture and "enforced admissions of failure" in a German management culture. One culture may be inspired by the very thing that depresses another."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Riding the Waves of Culture"

"Figure 10.1 shows the percentage of respondents who chose A, that is, the inner directors. No country produces a totally internalized reaction to this statement; the highest score is only 68%, but we see considerable variations between countries and, again, no marked pattern by continent. Only 19% of Japanese believe it is worth trying to control the weather, as few as 22% of Chinese, only 21% of Swedes but 36% of the British. The British, Germans and Americans are above the middle of the range, but by no means among the top scorers. If the alternatives are made to ap- pear more personally related, however, we get a different result. Figure 10.2 shows the percentage of respondents who chose A when asked to choose between the following."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Riding the Waves of Culture"

"MCC, the company employing Mr. Johnson, whose problems we have been following throughout this book, is broadly speaking a task-oriented com- pany, and many of Mr. Johnson's difficulties have arisen through clashes with colleagues whose expectation of companies are much closer to the family model. (The final installment of Mr. Johnsons story will be found at the end of this chapter.) Another example of what happens when these two models find themselves side by side is the story of Heinz, a manager from a large German multinational, experienced and outstandingly suc- cessful, who was selected to help a Colombian packaging material com- pany get out of the red. All stakeholders, the Colombian government included, acknowledged that modernization and more professional man- agement were needed. Heinz wanted to make the factory profitable and more efficient by introducing new production and quality standards."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Riding the Waves of Culture"

"Since the late 1970s MCC has been operating in more than 20 countries. As Its foreign sales have grown, top management has become increasingly concerned about international coordination. Overseas growth, while robust, has been un- predictable. The company has therefore decided to coordinate the processes of measuring and rewarding achievement worldwide. Greater consistency in managing country operations is also on the agenda. There is not a complete disregard for national differences; the general manager worked in Germany for five years, and the marketing manager spent seven years in the Singapore op- eration."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Riding the Waves of Culture"

"Countries with strongly universalist cultures try to use the courts to mediate conflicts. A recently released American book on automobile in- surance is called Hit Me I Need the Money. Indeed the USA, credited with being the most litigious society on earth, has considerably more lawyers per head of population than relatively particularist Japan. The more uni- versal the country, the greater the need for an institution to protect the truth. (Incidentally, there is a strong correlation between universalism and expenditure per head on pet food. This is not the same as pet own- ership; particularist France has more dogs than universalist Germany, but French dogs are integrated into the family and eat leftovers.)"-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Riding the Waves of Culture"

"One problem with the overlap between U-types and G-types is that the U-type sees as impersonal something the G-type sees as highly per- sonal. Italian views on the effectiveness of group bonuses are tied to their diffuse sense of private space. It is not "just a business discussion" taking place in a realm apart from their private selves, but a discussion touch- ing on what it means to be a feeling, thinking Italian. Pleasure and pain, acceptance and rejection ramify more widely in the diffuse system. You cannot criticize Italians as "generators of a crazy idea" without pro- foundly affecting their whole system. When Americans "let in" a German, French or Italian colleague into one compartment of their pub- lic space and show their customary openness and friendliness, that per- son may assume that they have been admitted to diffuse private space. They may expect the American to show equivalent friendship in all life"-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Riding the Waves of Culture"

"Borders and barriers between "life spaces" have physical dimensions as well. The Dutch author remembers arriving as a student at the Wharton School in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Bill, a new American friend, rushed to help him move in. In gratitude for his hard work on the hot summer day I asked him to stay for a while and have a beer. I went to wash up and came back to get him a beer out of the refrigerator. I did not need to; he had already opened the refrigerator and was helping himself. For him, a refrigerator was my public space into which I had in- vited him. To me and most of my Dutch compatriots, it was definitely private space. A few days later I was struck by a similar event. I was in- quiring about transportation across town when Denise, a fellow student, tossed me her car keys and said to call her when | was finished with my errand. I could not believe it. To me, a car was certainly private space. Have you ever tried to borrow a German acquaintance's Mercedes?"-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Riding the Waves of Culture"

"Policies of promotion and assessment Sequential or synchronic cultures, and those concerned more with the past or with the future, may also assess and promote differently. In se- quential cultures the supervisor asks how the employee has performed over the previous interval. The more that employee can be held respon- sible for a rise or fall in fortune the better, and the supervisors will be tempted to minimize their own roles, or that of their relationship with the employee, since this does not help the employee to see his or her own recent achievement separated out as an increment of gain or loss. In more synchronic organizations, on the other hand, the employee may be favorably assessed and promoted for the positive relationship estab- lished with the supervisors, who see that relationship developing over time and accumulating knowledge and mutuality. The supervisors gladly acknowledge their role in making the subordinate's career, as in the master-apprentice system in Germany."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Riding the Waves of Culture"

"In IBM, Germany scored considerably higher on UAI (65) than did the United States (46). Preiss’s findings on differences in anxiety avoidance con- firm this difference. Preiss’s first and third anxi- ety avoidance item were included in later versions of the Values Survey Module (Appendix 4)."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"In the work of both German and French organi- zation theorists markets play a very modest role. German books (e.g., Kieser & Kubicek, 1983) tend to focus on formal systems—on the running of the machine. The ideal principle of control in organizations is a system of rules on which every- body can rely. French books stress the exercise of power and sometimes the defenses of the individ- ual against being crushed by the pyramid (Crozier & Friedberg, 1977; Pagés, Bonetti, de Gaulejac, & Descendre, 1979). The principle of control is hierarchical authority; there is a system of rules"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"preted by the Germans as “Austrian charm.” Yet I believe that this friendly relationship pattern ap- plies only to face-to-face relationships, such as personally known superiors. (T. Lindner, personal communication; my translation)"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"In quadrant 2 (Japan, German-speaking coun- tries, some Latin countries, and Greece) motiva- tion is based on personal, individual security. This can be found in wealth and especially in hard work. Second-quadrant countries have grown fastest economically in the post-World War II pe- riod, contrary to McClelland’s predictions."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"111. From a large study in Germany, Witte (1973, 1977) concluded that successful innovations in organi- zations required the joint action of two actors: a Machtpromotor (power holder) and a Fachpromotor (expert). He found that these should be two different persons; trying to combine the two roles compromised one of them. Witte’s model probably applies best to countries like Germany, with small power distance (ac- cessibility of power holders) and at least medium uncer- tainty avoidance (belief in experts)."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Max Weber (1864-1920) was a German aca- demic with university training in law and some years’ experience as a civil servant. He became a professor of economics and a founder of German sociology. Weber (1930/1976) quoted a 17th-cen- tury Puritan Protestant Christian textbook about “the sinfulness of the belief in authority, which is only permissible in the form of an impersonal au- thority” (p. 224). In his own design for an organi- zation, Weber described the bureaucracy. The word was originally a joke, a classic Greek ending grafted onto a modern French stem. Nowadays it has a distinctly negative connotation, but to Weber it represented the ideal type for any large organization. About the authority in a bureau- cracy, Weber wrote:"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Let us now take the case of Germany. This is also a below-average PDI country, so the dialogue element in MBO should present no problem. However, Germany scored considerably higher on UAT; consequently, the acceptance of ambigu- ity is weaker. The idea of replacing the arbitrary authority of the boss with the impersonal author- ity of mutually agreed-upon objectives, however, fits the low-PDI, high-UAI cultural cluster very well. The objectives become the subordinate’s “superego.” MBO in Germany has been strongly formalized and converted into “management by joint goal setting.” 6"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"but, contrary to the German case, the personal au- thority of the superiors prevails over the rules.?2"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"ing been unlucky varied from 14% in Germany to 33% in the Netherlands; they were significantly negatively correlated with MAS (r = -.63*). The proportions attributing poverty to laziness varied from 10% in the Netherlands to 25% in Greece and Luxembourg; these were marginally posi- tively correlated with MAS (r= .52, p = .053). In masculine countries more people believe that the fate of the poor is the poor’s own fault, that if they would work harder they would not be poor, and that the rich certainly should not pay to support them."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"96. In Putnam’s study the attitudes of German civil servants were the most polarized. Civil servants sympa- thizing with the SPD (Socialists), who mostly had ar- rived on the scene later, tended to be more “politically” oriented; those sympathizing with the CDU (Christian Democrats) more frequently took a “classical” stand. Putnam’s study contained questions conceptually re- lated to PDI and others more related to UAI; on the for- mer, Germany and Great Britain produced more similar answers."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"95. During World War II, the German occupants introduced identity cards in the Netherlands. Laws re- quiring individuals to carry them were immediately abolished when the Germans left."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"9. In another of his studies with French, German, and British students, Stevens noticed a different mean- ing of time in the three groups. For the Germans, time was a source of pressure; they were constantly aware of its passing. For the French, time was a resource that should be controlled and utilized. For the British, time was a tool for orienting oneself."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"country subsidiaries (France, Germany, and Great Britain). *p = .05; **p = .01, ***p = .001."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"scales of the four dimensions. In the best case (Germany, with 11,384 respondents from all seven occupations and also divided over two sur- vey rounds), the 99% confidence interval is smaller than +1 point. For overall use, a 99% con- fidence interval of +3 points is a safe estimate. This assumes, of course, that only random vari- ance occurred. Systematic influences are ex- cluded."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"41. The clustering of Italy and South Africa with Germany and Switzerland in cluster 12 rather than in the Latin and Anglo clusters, respectively, was a surprise. The clusters found depend partly on the statistical method used. Thanks to the kind help of Dr. Zvi Maimon of Tel Aviv University, I also tried a smallest-space analysis (Guttman, 1968) using the country scores on 12 IBM questions (the three strongest correlated questions for each of the four dimensions). This technique is not intended for cluster analysis, but rather for the identifi- cation of dimensions in the data (as for factor analysis); however, it produces two-dimensional plots. One of these largely reproduced a UAI x PDI plot with Latin, Asian, and Germanic-Anglo-Nordic superclusters, but it put Italy (and also Japan) closer to the Germanic coun- tries than my UAI x PDI plot in Exhibit 4.2."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Preiss’s (1971) mail survey of 345 U.S. and 227 German engineers working in five more or less matched companies in either country. Forty- seven of Preiss’s questions were in the format of “work goal importance” items (such as A5-A18 in"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"103. Inkeles and Levinson (1954/1969) have written about Germany (which is above average in UAI) that a “major contributing power in the fall of the Weimar re- public was the inability of large numbers of Germans to tolerate the necessity for political compromise” (p. 476)."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"126. See Buruma (1994) for discussion of the ways Germany and Japan were dealing with the memories of World War II."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"In more masculine societies such as the United States and Germany, accounting systems stress the achievement of purely financial targets more than they do in more feminine societies such as Sweden or the Netherlands."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"The most eloquent defender of the need to limit growth has been the German-British economist E. F. Schumacher, in his 1973 book Small Is Beau- tiful: A Study of Economics as if People Mattered. “Things or people” is of course the key choice that distinguishes a masculine from a feminine value system. Governments in masculine cultures are more likely to give priority to growth and to be prepared to sacrifice the living environment for this purpose. Governments in feminine cultures are more likely to choose the reverse priority. Among the (in 1999) 15 countries of the European Union, MAS scores range from 79 (Austria) to 5 (Sweden). Resolving common issues of growth versus conservation is a major challenge for EU policy making."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Maurice, Sorge, and Warner (1980), in a com- parison of France, Germany, and Great Britain, analyzed the mechanisms through which national cultures affected technologically similar organi- zations. Each of the three countries showed its own specific pattern on the following three blocks of variables:"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"The industrial relations structures (labor-man- agement relations) of France, Germany, and Great Britain support the typology of Exhibit 8.1. The German labor unions are the most orderly and united; they do not like to strike (uncertainty avoidance), but they have achieved considerable formal codetermination (small power distance). The British unions are disorderly and resist codi- fying industrial relations rules (low uncertainty avoidance). The French unions are politically ori- ented, reasonably orderly (predictable strike be- havior), and in majority not very interested in for- mal codetermination."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"61. An earlier impressionistic study by Granick (1962) of French, Belgian, German, and British execu- tives seen from an American viewpoint had found least centralization in Britain (PDI 35). French, Belgian, and German companies were more centralized, but in Ger- many (PDI 35) the central authority tended to be a team"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"115. Olie (1994) describes the integration process in three cases of German-Dutch mergers."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"125. Lederer (1982) compared studies of authoritar- ianism among adolescents in Western Germany and the United States between 1945 and 1978-79 and found that over this period authoritarianism in both countries had decreased, but much more in Germany than in the United States: In 1945 the Germans were more authori- tarian than the Americans; in 1978-79, they were less so. Social upheaval after the lost war explains the stronger values shift in the German case. In the IBM study around 1970, PDI was 35 for West Germany and 40 for the United States. Georgas (1990) compared values about hierarchical parent-child relations in Greek families, both in urban (Athens) and in rural environments, and found that the values of the 18-year-old adolescent sons and daughters had shifted away from hierarchy in both"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"52. Huth (1980) applied psychological differentia- tion tests to schoolchildren in southern Germany and in Yucatdn, southern Mexico. I assume the first group to represent a masculine culture and the second (which, like neighboring Guatemala, has a Maya past) a femi- nine culture. For 18-year-olds, Huth found girls to be more field dependent than boys in Germany but less field dependent than boys in Yucatan (p. 99)."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"3. Have little tension and stress on the job. (Mean score United States 3.46, Germany 3.31.)"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"In the 18th century, philosophers such as Hume in England, Montesquieu in France, and Kant in Germany dealt with questions of national charac- ter. Popular wisdom about comparative national characteristics was codified, as in an anonymous Austrian painting in the form of a table that classi- fies 10 European nations according to each of 17 qualifiers, such as “manners,” “personality,” “worship,” and “pastimes.” The artist has not hid- den his sym- and antipathies.‘°"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"were within 11 points of the IBM scores; the outli- ers were Portugal (+33) and Germany (-18)."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"The first edition of Culture’s Consequences showed a comparison among IBM technicians in France, Germany, and Great Britain on the appre- ciation of four leadership styles (Hofstede, 1980a, fig. 7.6). It measured to what extent those perceiv- ing their boss as representing one of the four styles (Appendix 1, question A55) expressed sat- isfaction with this boss on 20 other questions. The French were most satisfied when they saw their boss as persuasive or paternalistic; the Germans, when they perceived him as participative or dem- ocratic (managing by majority vote). The British IBM technicians divided their sympathies over the persuasive-paternalistic and the consultative boss. The (more uncertainty-avoiding) French and German technicians preferred a boss with a"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"14 countries they showed the widest gap between male assertiveness and female nurturance. The German female engineers scored the most mascu- line of any of the samples of women except the Japanese unskilled. These German college-gradu- ate women showed an assertiveness that bypassed many groups of men in other countries."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"55. See, for example, Soeters (1993) about the po- litical management of the Belgian/Dutch/German Maas-Rhine region and Barmeyer (1996) about small border-crossing enterprises in the French/German Lorraine-Saarland region."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"A classic joke puts it that in Britain everything is permitted except that which is forbidden; in Germany everything is forbidden except that which is permitted; and in France everything is permitted, even that which is forbidden. The Ger- man word verboten has even found its way into the American language."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Proportions of respondents choosing euthanasia varied from 17% in the Philippines to 71% in France and Germany (48% in the United States). However, contrary to what might be hypothe- sized, these percentages did not relate to MAS, or to UAI. The single dominant correlation was with (1980) GNP/capita, r = .82***, rho = .77**. In wealthier countries people live longer and more"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"1. Work in a well-defined job situation where the requirements are clear. (Mean score United States 3.06, Germany 2.03, ona scale from 1 = of utmost importance to 5 = of very little or no importance. This is the largest difference found among all 47 questions.)"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"For 18 more or less homogeneous categories of IBM employees, representing five countries (France, Great Britain, Germany, Japan, and the Netherlands) and four groups of occupations, the rank correlations between the sociological and the psychological measure were computed across 22 work facets. Positive and sometimes significant correlations were found for Japan, Germany, and Great Britain (high MAS) and correlations around zero for France and the Netherlands (low MAS).!5 The correlations were stronger for the more highly educated than for the less educated occupa- tions in all countries."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Saner (1989) showed a cultural clash in the oppo- site direction in the way Gestalt therapy as devel- oped by the German Fritz Perls (1893-1970) was adapted in the United States, neglecting people’s dependence on social or institutional contexts: “I believe that most American Gestalt therapy theo- rists and practitioners are unaware of being influ- enced by culture values or fixed Gestalten best de- scribed as individualism or individualistic neurosis” (p. 59)."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"A comparative content analysis of publications about chief executive officers (or their equiva- lents) in France, Germany, Japan, Sweden, and Taiwan showed considerable differences in the images presented (Jackofsky & Slocum, 1988). French CEOs were described as taking autocratic initiatives (high PDI); Germans as stressing the training and responsibilities of their managers and workers (low PDI, high UAI); Japanese as practicing patience and letting the organization tun itself, aiming at long-term market share (high LTO); and Swedes as taking entrepreneurial risks and at the same time caring for their people’s quality of working life (low UAI, low MAS). The one Taiwanese CEO in the sample stressed hard work and the family (low IDV).>>"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Failing in school is a disaster in a masculine culture. In strongly masculine countries such as Japan (MAS 95) and Germany (MAS 66), the newspapers report each year about students who have killed themselves after failing examinations. In the United States (MAS 62), a Harvard MBA graduate counted four suicides—one teacher, three students—during his time at this elite Amer- ican institution (Cohen, 1973). Failure in school in a feminine culture is a relatively minor inci- dent. Some young people in feminine cultures take their lives too, but for reasons unrelated to performance, such as depression."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"A related subject is humor. What is considered funny is highly culture specific, and many jokes are untranslatable. Germans are often considered humorless by foreigners who don’t recognize that senses of humor differ. Experienced travelers know that it is unwise to attempt to use jokes and irony abroad until one is absolutely sure of the other culture’s conception of humor."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Edelmann et al. (1989) studied self-reports about the expression of embarrassment among fe- male and male students in Germany, Great Brit- ain, Greece, Italy, and Spain (between 96 and 200 respondents per country). Open-ended answers were coded by the local research team members. The countries’ UAI scores were significantly cor- related with reported duration of embarrassment (r=.98**) and with verbalization of emotions (r= -85*) and marginally with intensity of emotions (r = .76, significant at the .07 level). This study supports the relationship of UAI to the expression of affect, which is associated with a higher cul- tural anxiety level."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Maurice, Sellier, and Silvestre (1978, p. 5) compared wage differentials across organizations in France and Germany. Although wage differen- tials between hierarchical levels were smaller in"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Power distances also explain inequalities in earnings between hierarchical levels in organiza- tions. In the French and German plants studied by Brossard and Maurice (1974), wage differentials (earnings of the upper 1% divided by earnings of the lowest 10%) varied between 3.7 and 5.5 in France, and between 2.0 and 2.3 in Germany; trend data in France over an 18-year period showed no narrowing of income gaps (Centre d’ Etude des Revenus et des Coits, 1976). A more recent study of major companies in 12 coun- tries (Den Tex, 1992) confirmed that wage ratios between chief executives and workers were sig- nificantly positively correlated with country PDI"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"2. Be given clear, detailed instructions as to how to proceed with the job. (Mean score United States 3.81, Germany 3.58.)"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"The occupational PDI scores were calculated averaging between the occupational means for the PDI questions for France, Germany, and Great Britain.'27 For occupations surveyed in both 1967-69 and 1971-73 the data for “employees afraid” and the “perceived manager” were obvi- ously the mean of the two survey scores."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Harpaz (1990) reported results of a “meaning of work” study among representative samples of the working population in Belgium, Germany, Great Britain, Israel, Japan, the Netherlands, and the United States—a total of 8,192 respondents. Re- spondents had to rank 11 work aspects in order of importance to them: (1) a lot of opportunity to learn new things, (2) good interpersonal relations (supervisors, coworkers), (3) good opportunity for upgrading or promotion, (4) convenient work hours, (5) a lot of variety, (6) interesting work (work that you really like), (7) good job security, (8) a good match between your job requirements and your abilities and experience, (9) good pay, (10) good physical working conditions (such as light, temperature, cleanliness, low noise level), and (11) a lot of autonomy (you decide how to do your work)."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"ticular society, and games of chance should be played more often in low-UAI countries. In com- paring Great Britain and Germany, but also in comparing Hong Kong and Japan, the relationship between low UAI and the popularity of chance games seems to hold.!!?"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"¢ Do you find your work less satisfying than you did at the start of your career? (from 23.3% in France to 10.0% in Germany, corre- lation with PDI rho = .63*)"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"the British IBM scores. Georgas, Berry, Shaw, Chris- takopoulou, and Mylonas (1996) found that family val- ues of Greeks in Canada, Germany, and the Netherlands depended more on age than on generation and host coun- try, just as in Greece itself. Rosenthal and Feldman (1992) compared first- and second-generation Chinese in Australia and the United States and found an erosion of ethnic identification but no increase in individualism. Lalonde and Cameron (1993), however, found shifts to- ward mainstream values for students in Canada from four ethnic groups compared to their parents: blacks from the Caribbean, Chinese, Greeks, and Italians."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Almond and Verba’s (1963) study of political attitudes of representative samples of the popula- tion in five countries (Great Britain, Germany, It- aly, Mexico, and the United States; about 1,000 respondents in each country). One of Almond and Verba’s key concepts was “subjective political competence”: the extent to which respondents be- lieved they could participate in political deci- sions. Almond and Verba designed a 5-point Guttman scale of subjective competence in deal- ing with local government. On this scale they found the United States and Great Britain highest in subjective competence and Germany, Italy, and"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"25. Their data are from a 1988 conference paper by Ackermann; they are based on a comparative public opinion survey by the German Allensbach Institute."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"¢ What gives you the most satisfaction: your home life, your career, or outside interests? (choosing “career”: from 42.5% in Germany to 21.7% in Italy, correlation with PDI rho = ~.67*)"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"A similar naiveté with regard to foreign solu- tions is often found among journalists and politi- cal writers, whether they want to export German- type Mitbestimmung to Britain, Swedish job re- form to Italy, or U.S. private enterprise to Russia. There exists a widespread tendency to underesti- mate the force of deeply rooted societal norms for arriving at political or organizational solutions that will work and be stable. But, to rephrase a fa-"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"The distinction between the unique and the comparable, the specific and the general, was made by Wilhelm Windelband in late-19th-cen- tury Germany when he contrasted “idiographic” with “nomothetic” styles of scientific inquiry. The idiographic style was mainly found in “his- torical” disciplines looking for wholes or Ges-"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"11. Parsons (1951, pp. 182 ff.) developed a 2 x 2 classification of “principal types of social structure,” in which he put China, Latin America, Germany, and the United States in the four cells. Parsons’s dimension that corresponds to PDI is “universalistic” (low PDI) versus “particularistic” (high PDI); the dimension that corre- sponds to UAI is “achievement” (low UAI) versus “as- cription” (high UAI). In Chapter 5, the universalistic/ particularistic distinction was associated more with in- dividualism, but for the four countries that Parsons con- sidered, PDI and IDV cannot be separated. Chapter 4 showed the relationship between low UAI and achieve- ment motivation."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Work goals obviously also differed by age cate- gory. In the first edition of Culture’s Conse- quences, | reviewed seven studies (six U.S., one German), published between 1957 and 1976, about the relationship between work goal impor- tance and age (Hofstede, 1980a, pp. 361-362). The following trends were suggested by one or more of them:"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"86. In the chapters on power distance and uncer- tainty avoidance, data for comparing occupations were taken from the three large countries France, Germany, and Great Britain only. For work goals, German data for several of the occupations were missing. Therefore, in this case I preferred using European totals, which dif- fered only slightly from weighted means of the large countries. For card plants and laboratories, worldwide work goal averages were used, including some from out- side Europe (15% and 8% of respondents, respectively);"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"110. As this is written, an English translation of d’Iribarne’s La Logique de l’honneur is forthcoming. A Dutch version appeared in 1998 and a German version in 2000."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"were within 16 points of the IBM scores; this time the outliers were Taiwan (+34), Argentina (+26), Japan (+24), and Mexico (+24), and Italy (-32), Germany (—23), and the United States (-21). The pilots’ study provided an estimated IDV score for Morocco (MRC): 46."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"114. Barzini (1983), in an anecdotal way, has also il- lustrated the historical continuity in the national cul- tures of a number of countries: France, Germany, Great Britain, Italy, the Netherlands, and the United States."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"A completely different picture was found for Switzerland. In this case, respondents from Ger- man-speaking Switzerland were clearly cultur- ally associated with Germany and those from French-speaking Switzerland with France; there was a wide culture gap between the two language areas, in particular on the dimension of power dis- tance. In scores on Gordon’s Values Surveys among course participants at IMEDE, I had also found German-speaking Swiss to be part of the Germanic cluster and French-speaking Swiss to be part of the Latin cluster (Hofstede, 1976d). In that case, all responses were collected with an English-language questionnaire, which proves that the split was not an artifact of translation."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"The appeal of rituals should, among other things, be visible in a need for detailed planning. Horovitz (1980), in a comparison of 175 British, French, and German top managers, found that the (higher-UAI) French and Germans focused much"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"In the English language, culture has a number of other meanings, all deriving from its original Latin meaning: the cultivation of soil (the same applies in French and German). Another meaning that leads to some confusion, especially in com- municating with the French, is “the training and refining of the mind, manners, taste etc. or the re- sult of this.” 3! In order to avoid confusion in dis- cussing culture with my students, I usually label this Culture 1 and the anthropological term Cul- ture 2. Unlike Culture 1, Culture 2 is carried by even the humblest people and through the most menial acts."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Corporate governance is also related to corpo- rate financial goals. It is naive to assume that such goals are culture-free. Weimer (1995) compared financial goals of German, Dutch, and U.S. busi- ness companies, using both questionnaires and in- terviews with executives. Although all stressed the making of profit, the Germans translated this into independence from banks, the Dutch trans- lated it into book value, and the Americans related it to shareholder value (p. 336). This reflects the institutional differences among the countries (the strong role of banks in Germany) but also the pre- vailing ideologies (the shareholder as a symbol in the United States). These differences suggest rela- tionships with UAI and IDV that may become vis- ible if data from a broader range of countries be- come available. The finance function has been the last stronghold in business administration to es- cape cross-cultural analysis."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"The authority of rules is something different from the authority of persons. The first relates conceptually to uncertainty avoidance; the sec- ond, to power distance. The German expression Befehl ist Befehl (an order is an order) refers to the authority of the rule: The person who gives the or- der is irrelevant, as long as he or she occupies the position to which the rule assigns the giving of or- ders. The French bon plaisir (literally, “good pleasure,” used to describe the arbitrary will of the ruler in the 17th century), which Crozier (1964a, p. 222) still found in contemporary French bureaucracies, puts the authority of the person above the system of rules. The first sug- gests strong uncertainty avoidance; the second, large power distance."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"The Viking period was followed by the Hanse- atic League period (1200 to 1500 A.D.); the Hansa was active in the Nordic countries but also in the Netherlands, in the free German cities of Ham- burg, Bremen, and Liibeck and in the Baltic states. It was a free association of trading towns and, for the maintenance of such a system, values associ- ated with femininity were functional. Women played an important role in the Hansa:"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Exhibit 6.17 plots MAS against UAI. The lower right-hand corner, which combines masculinity with strong uncertainty avoidance, contains the Axis powers from World War II: Germany, Italy, and Japan. This combination of cultural values was instrumental in their aggressive role, but also in their remarkable recovery afterward. Their main adversaries, Great Britain and the United States, are found in the upper right-hand corner, where masculinity is combined with weak uncer- tainty avoidance. So the main belligerents (except France) are all found on the high-MAS side."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"52. For the full story, see the first edition of Cul- ture's Consequences (Hofstede, 1980a, p. 381). Hartmann (1973) analyzed a comparable culturally bi- ased review of German management by U.S. consulting firm Booz, Allen & Hamilton."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"tween the two countries on variables related to concentration of authority, with greater concen- tration in France. French plants tended to have five hierarchical levels against German plants’ three. French plants had an average of 26% of per- sonnel in management and specialist roles; Ger- man plants, 16%. A similar difference in number of hierarchical levels was reported by Negandhi and Prasad (1971, p. 60) between Indian-owned and American-owned plants in India, which is in line with the PDI difference between India and the United States."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"blood pressure is seen as a reason for living longer (and maybe getting a lower life insurance pre- mium) in Britain and the United States, but it is treated as a disorder in Germany, and on the Ger- man market several drugs are available to cure it."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Parsons (1951, pp. 182 ff.) used variables 3 and 4 above (universalism/particularism and ascrip- tion/achievement) to create a fourfold taxonomy of countries in which he placed China, Germany, Latin America, and the United States. In a later publication, Parsons (1977, p. 14) suggested that the evolution of societies replaces particularism with universalism and ascription with achieve- ment. This would mean that evolution will even- tually push all societies to join the United States in the universalist/achievement corner of Parsons’s taxonomy. However, Parsons was less outspoken about the relationship between evolution and the other pattern variables, and acknowledged that throughout evolution, cultural systems might continue to differ (pp. 235, 237)."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Bierbrauer (1994) has related individualism and collectivism to “legal cultures.” He based this on extensive in-depth interviews with recent Kurdish-Turkish and Lebanese immigrants in Germany (collectivist) versus an educationally matched group of Germans (individualist). His main conclusion was that interviewees from the two collectivist groups “had a greater preference for abiding by the norms of tradition and religion and were less willing to let state law regulate in- group disputes.” German, more individualist, in- terviewees “showed a clear preference for formal procedures and guidelines” (p. 243). So legal norms are not universal, which means that appeals to legality in international or intercultural dis- putes are of limited value."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Masculinity and femininity in politics are not only a matter of policy priorities; they are also re- flected in informal rules of the political game. In masculine cultures such as Britain, Germany, and the United States, the style of political discourse is strongly adversarial. This is not a recent phe- nomenon. In 1876 the Dutch-language newspaper De Standaard reported that “the American politi- cal parties eschewed no means to sling mud at"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"was no systematic occupation/education differ- ence (or at least it went one way for men, the other way for women). The largest occupation/educa- tion differences were visible for Germany, Swe- den, and Australia."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Those with a vested interest in societal inequal- ity are fond of theories trying to prove that collec- tive differences in behavior are due to heredity, ignoring environmental factors. The German Na- zis had their race theories. In the United States, books arguing that black people are genetically less intelligent than white people appear with some regularity, although these have lost some of their popularity, given that the same logic would show that Asians are genetically more intelligent than Caucasians (see also Chapter 7). A classic comparative study of the cognitive development of children in the United States and in Africa (Cole, Gay, Glick, & Sharp, 1971) showed that the abilities developed depended on the tasks. Children became good at things that were impor- tant in their society and that they had occasion to do often.®"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Development assistance projects carried out by engineers from rich countries often suffer from unrecognized differences in implicit assumptions about how organizations work. Take the story of a German engineering firm that was installing an ir- rigation system in an African country. Over- coming great technical difficulties, the engineers constructed an effective and easy-to-operate sys- tem. They provided all the necessary documenta- tion for later use and repairs, translated into Eng- lish and Swahili. Then they left. Four months later, the system broke down; it was never re- paired. The local authority structure had not had an opportunity to adopt the project as its family property; it had no local “master.”"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"The interdependence of institutions and what is in people’s minds has been stressed by social sci- entists of different disciplines. Sociologists Peter Berger (United States) and Thomas Luckmann (Germany), in The Social Construction of Reality (1966) describe a continuous cycle of externaliza- tion (creating a social environment), objectiva- tion (attributing to this environment objective sta- tus), and internalization (socializing of people’s consciousness by this objective social environ- ment). They state: “Man (not, of course, in isola- tion but in his collectivities) and his social world interact with each other. The product acts back upon the producer” (p. 78)."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"collection as to real properties of the respondent populations. Internationally designed compara- tive studies of sexual values and behavior (like the one by Goldman mentioned above) are rare, al- though the German Italian sociologist Robert Michels (1911, p. 33) at the beginning of the 20th century expressed the need for a “comparative love science” (vergleichende Liebeswissenschaft). Michels’s material at that time remained limited to personal impressions. In this subsection I will try to provide more objective comparative informa- tion."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"cultures, but where PDI is high mothers advise daughters, and where it is low, daughters advise mothers. Similar conclusions have been pre- sented by Alden, Hoyer, and Lee (1993), who compared humor in TV ads in Germany, South Korea, Thailand, and the United States. Although humor was used in all four countries (with some common elements), the two Asian countries fea- tured more actors (low IDV) and more status dif- ferences between actors (high PDI). On the other hand, Cutler, Erdem, and Javalgi (1997) studied print ads from eight countries and found no rela- tionship between the picturing of multiple per- sons and IDV; !?6 they suggest this may be because these ads try to communicate to the individual reader. There was a marginal relationship be- tween the use of personalized pronouns and IDV (you for the more individualist and we for the more collectivist cultures).!27"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"62. Stohl (1993) interviewed 20 managers each from five European countries about their interpretation of “participation.” The French nearly exclusively re- ferred to formal participation; the British, Danes, Dutch, and Germans referred to both formal and infor- mal forms."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Among the European countries with Catholic majorities, only Ireland and Poland do not have a Latin past; both used their Catholicism as a source of identity to protect them against powerful non- Catholic occupants. Present-day Germany and the Netherlands were both border areas of the Ro- man Empire. The southern parts of both countries that once were Roman are still in majority Catho- lic, the northern parts Protestant. As shown above, in Germany the former borderline of the Roman Empire is also a political dividing line: The (more conservative) Christian Democrats have a stronger base in the south, and the Social"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"This implies that it would be prudent for re- searchers to be modest in identifying effective and ineffective planning and control systems in other cultures. Chapter 4 referred to the study of top management control in France, Germany, and Great Britain by Horovitz (1980). By the criteria set by the U.S. designers of planning and control systems, British managers did a better job of stra- tegic planning than their German and French counterparts; the latter focused on details and short-term feedback. Yet the national economies of France and Germany did not do worse than those of the United States and Great Britain. The Canadian Henry Mintzberg (1993) has expressed strong skepticism about the effects of strategic planning. Rituals are effective for those who be- lieve in them."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"The different forms of society that go with more collectivist and more individualist self-concepts were recognized early by sociologists. Tonnies (1887/1963) introduced the distinction between gemeinschaft and gesellschaft (the German terms were translated in the English version of his book as community and society). These concepts de- scribe two types of social entities. Gemeinschaft entities result from mutual sympathy, habit, or common beliefs and are “willed” for their intrin- sic value to their members; gesellschaft entities are intended by their constituents to be means to specific ends (Heberle, 1968, p. 100). Ténnies further noted in history a transition from a pre- dominantly gemeinschaft-like to a predominantly gesellschaft-like social order, which he attributed to increasing commercialization, the rise of the modern state, and the progress of science (p. 101)."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"tions to culture. It is only—and I believe this is necessary—a warning that the structure and func- tioning of organizations are not determined by a universal rationality. Making shoes, producing electricity, or treating the sick in Germany as op- posed to France calls for organizational structures and processes that differ in several respects. As d’Iribarne (1989) demonstrated in his comparison of aluminum production plants in France, the Netherlands, and the United States (see Chap- ter 3), technology contributes to the shaping of or- ganizations, but it is insufficient for explaining"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"ferent speeds and outcomes in different countries, leading up to the present differentiation on the mas/fem dimension of national cultures. For ex- ample, I found France, Spain, and Portugal to be less masculine than Britain, Germany, and Italy."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Evidence for the relationship between “concen- tration of authority” and power distance is found in a study by Brossard and Maurice (1974), who compared carefully matched industrial manufac- turing plants in France (PDI 68) and Germany (PDI 35). They showed marked differences be-"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"143. Saner and Yiu (1994) point to the cultural hur- dies implicit in the Harvard case-style method for stu- dents (and teachers) outside the United States. They suggest different case designs and teacher roles for Southeast Asia, German-speaking countries, and East- ern Europe."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"47. The high self-ratings in the United States can- not be only a matter of masculinity; individualism must also play a role. Little, Oettingen, Stetsenko, and Baltes (1995) studied more than 2,000 boys and girls, ages 8 to 12, in schools in Germany (East and West Berlin), Rus- sia (Moscow), and the United States (Los Angeles). Data collected concerned (1) the children’s school per- formance and (2) their beliefs about what explained this performance. U.S. children rated the influence of their own effort on their performance higher than did the oth- ers, but in fact the correlation between their self-ratings and their actual performance was lowest. In East Berlin, 47% of the variance in performance could be predicted from self-rated effort; in Los Angeles, only 15%. Ger- many and the United States do not differ on MAS, but the United States is considerably more individualist."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Boehnke, Scott, and Scott (1996, p. 135) com- pared factors affecting students’ academic perfor- mance, collecting opinions from students, par- ents, and teachers in three Asian countries (Hong Kong, Japan, and Taiwan) and four Western ones (Australia, Canada, Germany, and the United States). They found that aggressive behavior by students was negatively correlated with academic performance in East Asia but hardly in the West- ern countries. Students’ self-esteem was posi- tively correlated with academic performance in the West, but hardly in the East."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"In the same way as country scores had to be computed for a stratified sample of occupations, occupation scores had to be computed for a strati- fied sample of countries. The data in Exhibit 3.2 are based on responses from the three large coun- tries France, Germany, and Great Britain, giving equal weight to each. The lower-education,"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"more on details and short-term feedback than did their (lower-UAI) British counterparts. Hoffman (1987) collected views about decision power from some 300 top managers in 78 manufacturing busi- ness units and divided them into Anglo (British and American), Germanic (German and Swiss), and Nordic (Danish, Norwegian, and Swedish). The Germanic cluster (higher UAI) more often mentioned rational forecasting as a source of de- cision power. On the other hand, strategic plan- ning, which avoids details, appeals less in high- UAI countries. Faucheux (1977) has argued that U.S. (low-UAI) approaches to strategic manage- ment do not apply to (high-UAI) Latin countries in general and to France in particular."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Health care practices vary considerable among countries, as any traveler who has consulted a doctor abroad can testify. Payer (1989) has writ- ten a delightful book, based largely on her per- sonal experiences, about notions of health and sickness in Britain, France, Germany, and the United States. All of these are individualist coun- tries, but even among these there are remarkable differences. Theories and practices of medicine are tightly interwoven with cultural traditions, and this goes beyond the general classifications offered by cultural dimensions. For example, low"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Culture is present in the design and quality of many products, and in the presentation of many services.'!6 An interesting example is the differ- ence in passenger aircraft cockpit design between the two large actors on the world market, Airbus (European, primarily French-German) and Boe- ing (U.S.). Pilots familiar with both told Merritt (1995) that the Airbus has been designed to fly it- self with minimum interference from the pilot, whereas the Boeing expects more discretion from and interaction with the pilot. The Airbus is the product of an uncertainty-avoiding design cul- ture; the Boeing respects the low power distance pilot’s supposed need to feel in command."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Avoidance Index, the statistical analysis (Exhibit 4.18) shows that it made sense to divide the “bal- anced power” countries into “old” and “young” democracies. The young democracies (which de- veloped their present form of government since World War I: Austria, Finland, France, Germany, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Japan, and Turkey) tend to show higher UAI scores than do the old democra- cies (Australia, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Great Britain, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United States).°* Each of the young democracies ac- quired its present form of government after losing or winning a war in which the country played a more or less aggressive role. Lynn and Hampson (1977) have proven the continuity of their anxiety factor from 1935 to 1978 (see below). This means that the stress levels were not caused by the war, but rather contributed to the fact that countries took part in it."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Lower LPC scores in higher-UAI countries also imply that managers in these countries are more task oriented. An illustrative incident is that in one phase of the IBM survey, two questions about whether managers were seen as task oriented were suppressed in the two higher-UAI countries Japan and Germany, although they belonged to the ac- cepted core of the questionnaire. Local manage- ment considered these questions redundant and/or unacceptable. When in Germany these questions were reintroduced in the next survey phase, they proved to be unrelated to employees’ perceptions of these managers’ leadership styles, contrary to what was found in other countries. Task orienta- tion among German managers was an imperative rather than a variable."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Symbolic personalities representing Western countries in the 19th and 20th centuries were re- markably gendered according to their cultures’ masculinity or femininity: John Bull for Britain and Uncle Sam for the United States, but Marianne for France and the Dutch maiden (called Frau Antje in Germany) for the Netherlands. !24"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"In three countries the surveys were adminis- tered in two languages each: Belgium, Switzer- land, and former Yugoslavia (see Appendix 5, Ex- hibit A5.2). Both Belgium and Switzerland combined Germanic and Latin languages. In Bel- gium about 54% of the population spoke Dutch, 45% spoke French, and 1% spoke German. In Switzerland, the figures were about 75% German, 20% French, 4% Italian, and 1% Rhaeto- Romanic. In former Yugoslavia the survey was administered in Serbo-Croat and Slovene; the scores could be split to fit the present independent republics of Croatia, Serbia, and Slovenia."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"117. McEvedy and Jones (1978) have published population growth curves for all parts of the world. The ratios of population 1975/1700 for various parts of Eu- rope on the basis of their data are as follows: European Russia, 8.0; Scandinavia plus Finland, 7.3; Netherlands, 6.8; Great Britain plus Ireland, 6.4; Germany, 6.1; Greece, 6.0; Belgium plus Luxembourg, 5.7, Switzer- land, 5.2; Italy, 4.3; Spain, 4.3; Portugal, 4.0; Austria, 3.0; and France, 2.4. The North clearly grew much faster than the South."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"The social origins of administrative elites differ among countries. In the higher-PDI countries France and Italy, administrative elites were re- ported to be distinctively unrepresentative of the total population as far as their social origins were concerned, more so than in the lower-PDI coun- tries Great Britain, Germany, the Netherlands, and the United States (Aberbach & Putnam, 1977)."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"So in fact only questions 1, 2, and 5 really dealt with ethnocentrism; the others are a hodgepodge of traditional versus modern views. It could as well be called a “modernity” questionnaire. The scores per respondent group were as follows: Bantus in South Africa, 47; Brazil, 41; Lebanon, 37; Turkey, 34; Israel, 33; West Germany, 30; France, 28; Japan, 23; French Canadians, 22; Eng- lish Canadians, 20; United States, 18. Across 10 countries these scores rank correlated with rho = —.89*** with both IDV and 1970 GNP/capita, us- ing IBM scores for Canada for the English Cana- dians, for East Africa for the Bantus, and for Arabic-speaking countries for Lebanon. The Bantu 1970 GNP/capita was estimated at U.S.$200. The “ethnocentrism” score for the French Canadians was not used; through regres-"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Another way in which uncertainty avoidance may affect the teaching process is in the amount of tolerance for the use of local dialect speech. A small comparative study by Gerritsen (1995) among women and girls on either side of the Ger- man-Dutch border shows a much greater toler- ance for use of the local dialect in the Netherlands (UAI 53) than in Germany (UAI 65)."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Chapter 3 showed that vertical relations in or- ganizations reflect the common values of superi- ors and subordinates inacountry. Leadership and subordinateship are inseparable. This is immedi- ately clear in the political field: It is difficult to imagine that a Hitler would have been a success- ful leader in Great Britain, a Churchill in France, or a de Gaulle in Germany."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"In his Ph.D. dissertation, discussed in Chap- ter 7, Read (1993) compared the economic histo- ties of 114 countries since World War II and con- cluded that growth patterns have depended on the cultural context, using among other measures my five cultural indexes. Fast-growing nations be- longed to one of five political/cultural clusters: “economic rebuilders” (e.g., West Germany and Japan), “uncertainty avoiders” (e.g., Greece and Portugal), “individualistic nations” (e.g., Ireland and Israel),”3 “open thrifty nations” (e.g., Hong Kong and Singapore), and “closed thrifty nations” (e.g., Malaysia and Thailand). Read concluded that “no one set of political policy prescriptions would appear appropriate for all nations” (p. 102)."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"zation. In the United States itself, postcards and other paraphernalia were seen bearing the slogan “T’d rather be dead than excellent.” In a more dis- passionate way, Lammers (1988) has shown that the “excellent companies” were simply the latest descendants of an entire genealogy within organi- zational sociology of ideal types of “organic orga- nizations” described by the German sociologist Joseph Pieper in 1931, if not by others before, and reiterated in the sociological literature on both sides of the Atlantic."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Laws and bylaws are the form par excellence in which societal norms are expressed: “Legisla- tion” is one of the consequences of societal norms in the diagram displayed in Exhibit 1.5; it serves, inits turn, to reinforce the norm. The cultural heri- tage of the Roman Empire is partly transferred by Roman law. Uncertainty-avoiding countries will have a greater need for legislation than will less uncertainty-avoiding countries. For exam- ple, Germany (UAI 65) has an extensive set of laws even for emergencies that might occur (Notstandsgesetz); Great Britain (UAI 35) does not even have a written constitution. Attempts at codifying labor-management relations in Britain (the Industrial Relations Act) failed because they were too much against societal norms."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Such a misperception occurred during an inter- national management training program within IBM Europe, when at the end the trainers rated the participants’ future career potential in the com- pany. English was the course language. A longitu- dinal follow-up study of actual careers showed that the potential of native English-speaking par- ticipants had been systematically overrated and that of French or Italian speakers had been under- valued, with German speakers in between.!°"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"80. Already in comparing Britain and the United States, Inkson, Schwitter, Pheysey, and Hickson (1970) could not use “structuring of activities” as a homoge- neous dimension for international comparison because, although no differences were found in specialization and standardization, Britain was systematically lower on one aspect of formalization: reliance on written rules. Child and Kieser (1979) found more managerial job de- scriptions in Britain than in Germany, but in other re- spects German organizations were more formalized than British ones. Drenth and Groenendijk (1984, pp. 1214-1216) distinguished among formalization, bu- reaucratic control, and routine work and suggested that my UAI dimension is related to the last two rather than the first."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"A classic study of the historical roots of author- ity relations in work organizations is Reinhard Bendix’s Work and Authority in Industry (1956/ 1974). Bendix compared England and Russia in the 18th and 19th centuries. He shows how in Eng- land the working classes were emancipated through reading and writing, and how in Russia, in spite of Marxist ideology, the servitude of czar- ism continued in Soviet industries. He also com- pared the United States and East Germany in the 1950s, and he shows that the Marxist ideology was received quite differently in East Germany,"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"81. All five countries had high MAS scores in the IBM data; in this case the United States was the least masculine country in the set. The overall mean correla- tion between manager and men was r= .71*** in the an- swers of male students and r = .67*** in the answers of female students. The overall mean correlation between manager and women was r =—.00 in the answers of male students. For female students the correlation coeffi- cients r between manager and women were as follows: Japan, —.04; Germany, .19*; China, .28**; Great Brit- ain, .31**; and United States, .43***."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Even though most Danes are good at foreign lan- guages, we... have examples of employees with seven to nine years of schooling who. .. were un- able to communicate freely and advance beliefs on behalf of their colleagues because the foreign management fixed the agenda in their [the for- eign] language, unaware that active participation and exchange of views in a discussion . . . needs a standard of English that is so high that it is mas- tered by only very few Danish employees. We also have examples of engineers who can easily com- municate in German as long as they talk with Ger- man engineers about . . . the development of a product. But they have never learned how to dis- cuss and argue in German in order to defend their interests when cooperation problems arise be- tween a Danish and a German project group. (Gertsen & Sgderberg, 1998, p. 193)"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Greece. What roles do the state and/or religious bodies play? In some countries (France, Russia) the government prescribes the curriculum in great detail; in others, teachers are free to define their own. In countries where both private and public schools exist, the private sector may be for the elites (United States) or for the dropouts (Nether- lands, Switzerland). Where does the money for the schools come from? How well are teachers paid and what is their social status? In China, teachers are traditionally highly respected, but poorly paid. In Britain, the status of teachers has traditionally been low; in Germany, high."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"The examples used so far stem from university and postacademic teaching and learning situa- tions, but the behaviors and expectations of both students and teachers in these examples were clearly developed during earlier school experi- ences. Oettingen (1995) studied self-efficacy of schoolchildren in West and East Berlin and in Los Angeles. Self-efficacy refers to one’s sense of per- sonal ability, which is reinforced by successes and weakened by failures. East Berlin children (after the reintegration of Berlin) were most pessimis- tic about self-efficacy. It is likely that this pessi- mism was fostered by the East German commu- nist education philosophy, in which public social comparison, an anxiety-arousing practice, played alarge role. West Berlin children showed stronger self-efficacy, which Oettingen explains as both weaker uncertainty avoidance and stronger indi- vidualism. Low-UAI Los Angeles schoolchil-"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Huntington (1993) has predicted “the clash of civilizations” as the next phase in international politics, but what are civilizations? Some politi- cal clashes are a matter of conflicting values; oth- ers take place between parties sharing very simi- lar values. The IBM database showed that respondents from the French- and Dutch-speak- ing regions of Belgium, involved in a perennial political struggle, held much the same values. The Serbs and Croats in the Yugoslav data, two ethnic groups that in the 1990s fought a civil war, also had rather similar scores, although the Serbs were more extreme. On the other hand, the German- and French-speaking Swiss, who usually live in peace together, produced quite different value profiles (see Chapter 2 and Appendix 5)."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Masculine cultures showed more confidence in the advertising industry (Eurodata 91, correlation with MAS rho =.53*). In EMS 95, percentages of “strongly agree” answers to the statement “I often enjoy advertising on TV” were correlated with MAS with rho = .55*. De Mooij (1998b) thinks that the skepticism of feminine cultures toward advertising is based on their markets having been “relatively swamped by advertising reflecting US masculine values, thus advertising not made for the local culture and not liked. This masculine ori- entation of import advertising from the US is a lesser problem for other masculine markets such as the UK and Germany which also happen to have more indigenous advertising” (p. 71)."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Culture is not the same as identity. Identities consist of people’s answers to the question: Where do I belong? They are based on mutual im- ages and stereotypes and on emotions linked to the outer layers of the onion in Exhibit 1.4—sym- bols, heroes, and rituals—but not to values.*3 Pop- ulations that fight each other on the basis of their different “felt” identities may very well share the same values. Examples are the linguistic regions in Belgium, the religions in Northern Ireland, and tribal groups in Africa. A shared identity needs a shared Other: At home, I feel Dutch and very dif- ferent from other Europeans, such as Belgians and Germans; in Asia or the United States, we all feel like Europeans."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Finally, intercultural problems can be based on institutional differences in the societies from which the teachers and students have come, dif- ferences that generate different expectations as to the educational process and the roles of various parties in it. From what types of families are stu- dents and teachers recruited? Are educational sys- tems elitist or anti-elitist? A visiting U.S. profes- sor in a Latin American country may think he contributes to the economic development of the country, when in actual fact he only supports the continuation of elite privileges. What role do em- ployers play in the educational system? In Swit- zerland and Germany, traineeships in industry or business are a respected alternative to a university education, allowing people to reach the highest positions, but this is not the case in France or"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Of course, good hypotheses presuppose good theory. Social science research in the Anglo- American tradition often suffers from a lack of such theory. Empirical studies degenerate into fishing expeditions equipped with powerful com- puting tools that are doomed to find only triviali- ties because they do not know what to look for (see also my critique of “catchall” ecological fac- tor analysis in Chapter 1 and my description of my own search for a theory-first approach in Chapter 2).109 A marriage between a high-UAI concern for theory and a low-UAI tolerance for empiricism represents the best of both worlds. This explains the influence of Austrian and German social sci- entists such as Kurt Lewin and Theodor Adorno, who emigrated to the United States. More in gen- eral, collaboration and exchange among scholars of different national backgrounds, and therefore different scientific approaches, can only benefit all."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"but need additional words to describe this differ- ence.” “Languages differ not so much as to what can be said in them, but rather as to what is rela- tively easily said in them” (Hockett, 1954, p. 106; quoted in Fishman, 1974, p. 81). Modern lan- guages borrow extensively from each other to avoid the need for circumlocution to express use- ful concepts for which a given language has no equivalent. Words are borrowed for concrete ob- jects (sauna from Finnish, computer from Eng- lish) but also for concepts with a flavor related to the cultural context of the country of origin: lais- sez-faire and savoir vivre from French, verboten and Weltanschauung from German, business and manager from English."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Inglehart (1990) reported percentages of na- tional populations agreeing with the following statement: “The entire way our society is orga- nized must be radically changed by revolutionary action” (p. 39). Across 17 developed countries, these percentages, although generally low (be- tween 2% and 14%, with an overall mean of 6%), correlated significantly with PDI (r = .77**).° Larger power distances were associated with more revolutionary fervor.?! The same source showed percentages of the public in 20 countries claiming to discuss politics frequently or occa- sionally (Inglehart, 1990, p. 343). Across again 17 overlapping countries, these varied from 43% in Belgium to 83% in Germany; they were signifi- cantly negatively correlated with PDI (r = —.70**).° Politics is more discussable in lower- PDI cultures."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"8,654 for the United States. Across the 21 over- lapping countries, the pilots scored an average PDI of 67.8, 18 points above the IBM employees from the same countries. '“* The PDI scores of the countries in the two studies were correlated with r = .76***; the rank correlation that reduces the in- fluence of outlying scores was even stronger, rho = 8] #*, 1? Again the data can be used to com- pute best estimates for the scores on the IBM scale, through regression of the IBM scores on the pilots’ scores (far right-hand column in Exhibit 3.13). For 19 countries the pilots’ scores are within 15 points of the IBM scores; the outliers are Malaysia (-36), the Philippines (-25), and Germany (+24). The pilots’ study provided an es- timated PDI score for Morocco (MRC): 70."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"“National character” was a popular research subject in anthropology in the 1930s to 1950s. One definition was as follows: “relatively endur- ing personality characteristics and patterns that are modal among the adult members of the soci- ety” (Inkeles & Levinson, 1954/1997, p. 17). An alternative term was modal personality, which fit the anthropological research current at the time called culture and personality. An influential publication was U.S. anthropologist Ruth Bene- dict’ s book Patterns of Culture (1934/1959). Dur- ing and after World War II, the U.S. government called upon Benedict and her colleague anthro- pologists to help understand the psyche of enemy nations such as Germany, Japan, and Russia.‘?"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"In 2005 a New Yorkbased market research company studied the ide- als of beauty and body image among fifteen- to seventeen-year-old girls, through telephone interviews in cities in ten countries around the world: Brazil, Canada, China, Germany, Great Britain, Italy, Japan, Mexico, Saudi Arabia, and the United States. One question asked who had the most pow- erful influence on their beauty ideals. In collectivist cultures, the respon- dents most often referred to girlfriends--their in-group; in individualist cultures, they most often referred to boys (in general).33"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Just when Johannesson's superiors started to seriously doubt the wis- dom of the corporation's investment in these expensive trips, a fax arrived from Riyadh inviting Johannesson for an urgent visit. A contract worth sev- eral million dollars was ready to be signed. Back he went. From one day to the next, the Saudis' attitude had changed: the businessman-intermediary's presence was no longer necessary, and Johannesson for the first time saw the Saudis smile and even make jokes."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"The distinction between in-groups and out-groups that is so essential in the collectivist culture pattern has far-reaching consequences for busi- ness relationships, beyond those between employers and employees. It is the reason behind the cultural embarrassment of Mr. Johannesson and his Swedish superiors in Saudi Arabia, related at the beginning of this chapter. In individualist societies, the norm is that one should treat everybody alike. In sociological jargon this is known as universalism. Preferential treatment of one customer over others is considered bad business practice and unethi- I, We, and They 123"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"were within 16 points of the IBM scores; this time the outliers were Taiwan (+34), Argentina (+26), Japan (+24), and Mexico (+24), and Italy (-32), Germany (—23), and the United States (-21). The pilots’ study provided an estimated IDV score for Morocco (MRC): 46."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"dix 3, Exhibit A3.1, we read a value of 170 for IMP and of 23 for SDG, which means that the 14 work goal scores for Argentina (ARG) had acom- mon mean of 1.70 and a common standard devia- tion of .23. The raw score for Argentina for A5 was therefore converted as follows:"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"83. Inkeles (1966) carried out a large research pro- ject on the modernity of individuals in 1962-64; about 1,000 young men in each of six countries (Argentina, Chile, India, Israel, Nigeria, and East Pakistan [later Bangladesh}) were interviewed. More or less the same cluster of attitudes and behaviors related to “modernity” was found in all six countries, characterized by open- ness to new experience, independence of parental and traditional authority, interest in planning ahead, and in- terest in community affairs and news from the outside world."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Commercial airline pilots surveyed by Helmreich and Merritt (1998). See the three col- umns under “Merritt, pilots” in Exhibit 3.13. Valid returns ranged from 39 for Argentina to"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"The differences in approach and in results be- tween these two remarkably similar international disputes can be understood from cultural factors: Finland and Sweden are both feminine cultures; Argentina and Great Britain are both masculine. The masculine symbolism in the Falkland crisis was evident in the language used on both sides."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Wealth put aside, there were relatively more doc- tors in countries with high UAI and high IDV, and more nurses in countries with lower PDI, where doctors seem to delegate more. Nurses per doctor varied from .4 in Argentina to 10.5 in Kenya, with a mean of 3.5; across 50 countries these numbers were again strongly correlated with UAI (rho = ~.52***). There are many activities in hospitals that can be done by either doctors or nurses. In more uncertainty-avoiding countries, there is a greater tendency to have doctors carry out these activities. This can be interpreted as a conse- quence of a stronger belief in expert knowledge. Wealth per se is hardly a predictor of nurses per doctor; the zero-order correlation with wealth is weakly positive (rho = .27*). Investing national income in doctors rather than nurses is societally inefficient, because a poor country should be better able to pay for nurses than for doctors."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Chapter 3 related the Power Distance Index to the difference between balanced power and un- balanced power in political systems. Exhibit 3.18 shows that 20 countries in the PDI range showed balanced power and 21 in the upper-PDI range showed unbalanced power since 1975. There were 9 exceptions: France, Belgium, Portugal, and Greece, with higher PDI and balanced power; and Argentina, Iran, Pakistan, South Africa, and Taiwan, with lower PDI and unbalanced power. IDV is even more closely associated with bal- anced power than PDI: From the top 19 countries in Exhibit 5.1, 18 had balanced power since 1975 (all but South Africa); from the remaining 31 countries only 5 had balanced power (Japan, Tur- key, Greece, Portugal, and Costa Rica), and some of these went through political upheaval shortly before 1975."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"The Falkland Islands are also a small archipel- ago disputed by two nations: Great Britain, which occupied the islands in 1833, and nearby Argen- tina, which claimed rights on them dating from 1767 and tried to get the United Nations to support its claim. The Falklands are about eight times as large as the Alands, but they hold far fewer inhab- itants, about 1,800 poor sheep farmers. The Ar- gentine military occupied the islands in April 1982, whereupon the British sent an expedition- ary force that chased the occupants off, at the cost of (officially) 725 Argentine and 225 British lives as well as enormous monetary expense. In addi- tion, the economy of the islands was further dam- aged because it economically needed trade rela- tions with the Argentine hinterland."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"The Missouri Computational Company (MCC) MCC, founded in 1952, is a very successful American company. It develops, pro- duces and sells medium- and large-size and large computers, The company cur- rently operates as a multinational in North and South America, Europe, Southeast Asia, Australia and the Middle East. Sales activities are regionally structured. The factories are in St. Louis and Newark (Nj); the most important research activities take place in St. Louis."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Riding the Waves of Culture"

"32. In Australia, the term tall poppy is used for a very successful person, and seeing such persons fall at times is supposed to give satisfaction. Feather and McKee (1996) compared answers of samples of Austra- lian and Japanese students on a “Tall Poppy Scale.” In both countries the dominant feeling was that high achievers should be rewarded, rather than that they should fall. The Japanese showed more satisfaction when high achievers fell than did the Australians; among the Australians it was especially those with lower self-esteem who showed “tall poppy” feelings. A Japanese saying is “The nail that sticks out will be ham- mered down.” This, however, is an expression of collec- tivism, not of femininity. Neither Japan nor Australia has a feminine culture."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"ing country (Australia, Britain, Ireland, United States—MAS between 61 and 68) was compared to one of the Nordic countries or the Netherlands (MAS between 5 and 26)."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Human nature is what all human beings, from the Russian professor to the Australian aborigine, have in common: it represents the universal level in one's mental software. It is inherited within our genes; within the computer analogy it is the "operating system" that determines our physical and basic psychological functioning. The human ability to feel fear, anger, love, joy, sadness, and shame; the need to associate with others and to play and exercise oneself; and the facility to observe the environment and to talk about it with other humans all belong to this level of mental program-"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Attitudes toward homosexuality are also affected by the degree of masculinity in the culture. In a comparison among Australia, Finland, Ireland, and Sweden, it was found that young homosexuals had more prob- lems accepting their sexual orientation in Ireland and Australia, less in Finland, and least in Sweden. This is the order of the countries on MAS. Homosexuality tends to be felt as a threat to masculine norms and rejected in masculine cultures; this attitude is accompanied by an overestimation of its frequency. In feminine cultures, homosexuality is more often considered a fact of life.28"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"In a study of "sexual harassment" in four countries in the 1990s, Bra- zilian students of both sexes differed from their colleagues in Australia, the United States, and Germany. They saw sexual harassment less as an abuse of power, less as related to gender discrimination, and more as a relatively harmless pastime.27 Brazil in the IBM research scored lower on MAS than the three other countries (49, versus 61, 62, and 66, respectively)."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Authors from individualist countries tend to treat leadership as an independent characteristic that a person can acquire, without reference to its context. In the management literature from individualist, masculine cultures such as Australia, Britain, and the United States, romanticized descriptions of masculine leaders are popular. They describe what the read- ers would like to be and to believe. What really happens depends on lead- ers, on followers, and very much on the situation."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"2. The council-manager form, in which all executive functions are in the hands of the top civil servant, who is appointed by an elected council that has responsibility for setting policies but not for their execution. This form was found in Australia, Finland, Ireland, and Norway and in the smaller municipalities in the United States."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Masculine culture countries strive for a performance society; feminine countries for a welfare society. They get what they pay for: in 199495, across ten developed industrial countries for which data were available, the share of the population living in poverty varied from 4.3 percent in feminine Norway to 17.6 percent in masculine Australia. In the period 19922002, across eighteen developed countries, the share of the popula- tion earning less than half the median income varied from 5.4 percent in Finland to 17.0 percent in the United States. The share of functional illiter- ates (people who completed school but in actual fact cannot read or write) across thirteen developed countries varied from 7.5 percent in Sweden to 22.6 percent in Ireland.59 In all three cases the percentages were strongly correlated with MAS.60"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"In 1980 Geert published an article in the U.S. journal Organizational Dynamics entitled "Motivation, Leadership, and Organization: Do Ameri- can Theories Apply Abroad?" It had a stormy history; after the untimely demise of the editor who had invited and accepted it, it was at first refused and then published hesitatingly by his successor. He asked a U.S. and an Australian colleague to write assuaging comments, which were published in a later volume, along with Geert's reply.64 The article raised an upheaval far beyond what he had expected. Many reprints were ordered, especially from Canada."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Information about one hunter-gatherer society comes from an Aus- tralian researcher, Ray Simonsen, who administered the VSM94 (the 1994 improved version of the IBM questionnaire) to aboriginal entrepreneurs in Darwin, Northern Territory, and to a comparable group of white Austra- lians. Aboriginal society is still largely based on hunting and gathering. While unlike the white Australians, the aborigines scored high on power distance, low on masculinity, and high on uncertainty avoidance, on indi- vidualism they scored as high as their white compatriots.57"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Cluster 5 opposes growth to responsibility toward society in gen- eral. Table 9.1 shows that in the average ranking, growth was strongly dominant. In fact, the extent to which responsibility toward society in general was balanced against growth in a country turned out to be the main determinant of how much that country deviated from the overall average.40 Scores on cluster 5 showed that the United States, Australia, and Hong Kong most strongly focused on growth; the Netherlands, Germany, 326 C U LT U R E S I N ORGA N I Z AT ION S"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Table 7.1 lists index scores on the new dimension for the twenty-three countries that participated in the CVS. The top positions are occupied by China6 and other East Asian countries. (Japan, Hong Kong, Taiwan, South Korea, and Singapore were known in the last decades of the twentieth century as the "Five Dragons" because of their fast economic growth.) Continental European countries occupied a middle range. Great Britain and its Anglo partners Australia, New Zealand, the United States, and Canada scored on the short-term side. The African countries Zimbabwe and Nigeria scored very short-term, as did the Philippines and Pakistan."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Particular expertise is demanded from mental health professionals dealing with migrants and refugees. Ways of dealing with health con- cerns and disability differ considerably between collectivist and individual- ist societies. The high level of acculturative stress in migrants puts them at risk for mental health disorders, and methods of psychiatric treatment developed for host country patients may not work with migrants, again for cultural reasons. Most countries with a large migrant population such as Australia recognize transcultural psychiatry (and transcultural clinical psychology) as a special field. Some psychiatrists and psychologists special- ize in the treatment of political refugees suffering from the aftereffects of war or torture."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Dunlap maneuvered himself into situations where corporations were in such disastrous condition that radical surgery was essential. Hence, Kerry Packer, the Australian tycoon, hired him to turn around ANI, a $300 mil- lion acquisition that was losing $200 million a year. In such circum- stances, any agent of change would have reached for an ax, but Dunlap was stories and cases 289"-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"Ascribed and achieved values are also importantly connected to whether you are a pioneer capitalist country, such as the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, Australia, the Netherlands, and Belgium, or whether the main strategy is to follow fast and come from behind."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"The results of this research are interesting (Figure 1.2). Seven out of eight of the most universalist countries are Protestant and stable democ- racies: Switzerland, the United States, Canada, Sweden, Australia, the United Kingdom, and the Netherlands. Ireland is the exception, but this country was under British rule until 1921 and shares a common law tradi- tion. Catholics are, on the whole, less universalist: see the scores for Brazil, Spain, Poland, France, Mexico, Cuba, and Venezuela. Buddhist, Confu- cian, Hindu, and Shinto countries are more particularist still: see South Korea, China, Indonesia, Nepal, Japan, and Singapore."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"Figure 7.1 depicts the crucial interdependence of achieved status and as- cribed status. While "iron men" compete to achieve victory, a woman judge, flanked by the media, defines "men of iron" as those who do the ironing! The joke is not ours but Michael Leunig's, an Australian cartoon- ist. This redefinition of masculinity as a willingness to do housework re-"-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"While all political elections are results-oriented, the type of electoral sys- tem preferred varies among more specific and more diffuse cultures. Specific cultures like clear and specific outcomes. "First past the post" with a clear winner is popular with the most specifically oriented cultures-- Britain, the United States, Canada, Australia. It does more than produce specific results, it exaggerates that specificity. Hence a 10 percent plurality in a British, North American, or Australian election may produce a 40 to 200 percent majority in parliament or electoral colleges. Mrs. Thatcher never had a majority of the British electorate voting for her, although her demeanor and sense of conviction suggested otherwise. Specific cultures give vast powers to the largest organized minority."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"113. For an example from Australian public ac- counting firms, see Ashkanasy and Holmes (1995)."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"77. The set was extended to Australia by Clark and McCabe (1970) and to seven Southeast Asian countries by Redding and Casey (1976)."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"24. Read’s (1993) MPS values are 6 for Australia, 25 for Israel, and 47 for Thailand, which is the closest proxy for the Sino-Vietnamese I can find. Hill and Romm (1996, pp. 25 ff.) themselves relate the differ- ences they found to power distance and individualism/ collectivism, but I believe the link with long-term orien- tation is more revealing."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"127. Bloor and Dawson (1994) describe the case of an Australian home-care service for the elderly, in which the geriatrics, physiotherapists, social workers, administrative staff, and paramedical aides all formed distinct subcultures."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Ross (1983) also used a questionnaire on “Sex Role Conservatism” that showed the two groups of Australians scoring much more conservative than the two groups of Swedes, but with a wider gap for homosexuals than for heterosexuals: Swedish homosexuals were less conservative than heterosexuals, but Australian homosexuals were considerably more conservative than Aus- tralian heterosexuals. A set of questions on “atti- tudes toward parents” showed that the two na- tional groups did not differ in their attitudes toward their fathers, but that the Swedes rated their mothers as significantly more “active” than did the Australians. Finally, demographic ques- tions showed the Swedes had become homosexu- ally active earlier (age 19) than the Australians (age 21), suggesting the latter had more resistance to overcome."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Phinney, J. S. (1996). When we talk about American eth- nic groups, what do we mean? Australian Psychol- ogist, 51, 918-927."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"In an earlier study, Ross (1983) had adminis- tered the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI; Bem, 1974) to 163 Australian and 176 Swedish homo- sexual men, and to control groups of 98 Austra- lian and 57 Swedish heterosexual men. The BSRI is a U.S. questionnaire that allows the placement"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Gudykunst et al. (1992) reported on a manipu- lated survey among some 200 students in each of four countries: Australia and the United States (high IDV), and Hong Kong and Japan (lower IDV). Half of the respondents were asked to imag- ine a person from an in-group; the others were asked to imagine a person from an out-group. They were then asked to indicate to what extent they would do the following: talk with the person they imagined about themselves, ask about the other, expect shared attitudes and networks, and have confidence in the other. The differences be- tween the in-group answers and the out-group an- swers were largest in Hong Kong and Japan and much lower in Australia and the United States— in this order, which is also the order of the coun- tries’ IDV scores."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"39. Pratt, Mohrweis, and Beaulieu (1993) repli- cated Soeters and Schreuder’s (1988) research approach with Australians and British working for local and U.S. CPA firms. The results for the British were similar to those found by Soeters and Schreuder, but for the Aus- tralians they were inconclusive."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Schmidt and Yeh (1992) compared self-de- scriptions of the ways leaders claimed to influ- ence subordinates from five countries: Australia, Great Britain, Japan, Taiwan, and United States. Respondents were mixed groups of managers (from about 100 in Great Britain to more than 2,000 in Taiwan) who scored how often they used each of 33 “influence tactics.” Answers from the five countries were factor analyzed separately, and each factor found was given a name. The two strongest factors for each of the five countries were as follows:"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"13. Examples are management in the Indian subcon- tinent (Kanungo & Mendonca, 1994; Spink, 1996) and the growth of information technology in Australia and India (Plowman, 1999)."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"allocentric category was the least used and did not show significant differences among the three na- tional groups. The idiocentric category was used in 48% of cases in Malaysia, 68% in Australia, and 61% in Britain. The group category was used in 41% of cases in Malaysia, 19% in Australia, and 18% in Britain. The difference between the collectivist Malaysian culture and the individual- ist Australian and British cultures is, of course, highly significant. Although respondents in all three cultures used a majority of idiocentric state- ments, group or category statements were much more frequent in the collectivist society. Collec- tivist identity is to a large extent derived from group membership."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"was no systematic occupation/education differ- ence (or at least it went one way for men, the other way for women). The largest occupation/educa- tion differences were visible for Germany, Swe- den, and Australia."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"associated with this latter discriminant function, but they were smaller than the country differ- ences. A plot of the scores showed that gender dif- ferences were largest for Japan, followed by United States and Australia, and very small for Korea (Kashima et al., 1995, fig. 1). These differ- ences rank correlated perfectly with MAS (rho = 1.00** across the four countries)."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Bochner (1994) tested individualism/collectiv- ism differences in people’s self-concepts by ask- ing respondents to complete 10 statements begin- ning with “I am.” 4 Respondents were 26 adults in Malaysia, 32 in Australia, and 20 in Britain. Two judges blindly divided the statements into three categories:"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Boehnke, Scott, and Scott (1996, p. 135) com- pared factors affecting students’ academic perfor- mance, collecting opinions from students, par- ents, and teachers in three Asian countries (Hong Kong, Japan, and Taiwan) and four Western ones (Australia, Canada, Germany, and the United States). They found that aggressive behavior by students was negatively correlated with academic performance in East Asia but hardly in the West- ern countries. Students’ self-esteem was posi- tively correlated with academic performance in the West, but hardly in the East."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"of individuals on two scales, one of masculine and one of feminine gender role acceptance. Austra- lian heterosexuals, Swedish heterosexuals, and Swedish homosexuals did not differ in their posi- tions on the masculine and feminine BSRI scales. Only the Australian homosexuals differed: They scored as masculine as the other three samples, but with a significantly higher feminine role ac- ceptance. Ross concluded that “gender role in ho- mosexuals has a strong societal component” (p. 287): It is the antihomosexual Australian con- text that leads these homosexual men to identify more than other men with a feminine role. In the more accepting Swedish context, this identifica- tion process was not found."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"35. My 1967 dissertation made me an unconscious pioneer in the field later called behavioral accounting. Among other things, this field has produced several studies of the effects of budgets on people comparing Asian and Western countries: Singapore and Australia (Harrison, 1992, 1993; O’Connor, 1995), Japan and the United States (Chow, Kato, & Merchant, 1996; Ueno & Sekaran, 1992). Differences have generally been attrib- uted to individualism/collectivism and power distance; similarities, to characteristics of the system."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Attitudes toward homosexuality are also af- fected by the masculinity in the culture. Ross (1989) surveyed 600 homosexual men in Austra- lia, Ireland, Finland, and Sweden. Young homo- sexuals had more problems accepting their sexual orientation in Ireland and Australia, less in Fin- land, least in Sweden. Ross considers the soci- eties in question as homophobic in this order; it is also the order of the countries on MAS. Homosex- uality tends to be felt as a threat to masculine norms and so is rejected in masculine cultures (Bolton, 1994); this goes together with an overes- timation of its frequency (Diamond, 1993). In feminine cultures, homosexuality is more often considered a fact of life.!”"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"The association of UAI with employment sta- bility was validated by a 1997 report from the Or- ganization for Economic Cooperation and Devel- opment that listed average duration of the employment relationship in 17 OECD countries, varying from 6.4 years in Australia to 11.6 years"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"IDV. The values of IDV predicted on the basis of wealth plus latitude are listed next to the actual values in Exhibit 5.1. Differences of 14 or more points between actual and predicted value of IDV occurred for the following countries: more indi- vidualist, South Africa (+32 points), Australia, Great Britain, Italy, India, Ireland, New Zealand; less individualist, Sweden, Guatemala, South Ko- rea, Yugoslavia, Chile, Venezuela. These differ- ences represent the variance in IDV scores related not to wealth or latitude but, for example, to his- torical or traditional factors."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Leadership and Organization: Do American The- ories Apply Abroad?” (Hofstede, 1980b). It had a stormy history; after the untimely demise of the editor who had invited and accepted it, the article was at first refused and then published with hesi- tation by his successor. The new editor invited a U.S. and an Australian colleague to write assuag- ing comments, which were published in a later is- sue along with my reply.! The article raised an upheaval far beyond what I had expected; init I ar- gued, with empirical support, that generally ac- cepted U.S. theories such as those of Maslow, Herzberg, McClelland, Vroom, McGregor, Likert, Blake and Mouton, might not apply, or only very partially apply, outside the borders of their coun- try of origin—assuming they did apply within those borders. Among the requests for reprints of the article, by the way, a larger number were from Canada than from the United States itself."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Taxation in most countries has an equalizing ef- fect on incomes, but in a cross-national study Bégué (1976) showed data from the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) to the effect that taxation in high-PDI France had an unequalizing effect on incomes.* It had no effect on income equality in Australia, and it increased equality in eight other lower-PDI countries, the most so in Norway."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"the British IBM scores. Georgas, Berry, Shaw, Chris- takopoulou, and Mylonas (1996) found that family val- ues of Greeks in Canada, Germany, and the Netherlands depended more on age than on generation and host coun- try, just as in Greece itself. Rosenthal and Feldman (1992) compared first- and second-generation Chinese in Australia and the United States and found an erosion of ethnic identification but no increase in individualism. Lalonde and Cameron (1993), however, found shifts to- ward mainstream values for students in Canada from four ethnic groups compared to their parents: blacks from the Caribbean, Chinese, Greeks, and Italians."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"This case is an example of the power of dis- course. More in general, we use verbal clues to at- tach identities to members of our own and other groups, to express feelings of inclusion and exclu- sion, superiority and inferiority, tolerance and racism. These play a key role in intercultural en- counters.'! Clyne (1994, chap. 6) studied the dis- course in English of Australian immigrants in their work situation. He used audio and video ma- terial of some 80 male and female speakers with some 20 native languages. Discourse patterns could be related to cultural value systems and communication problems to differences in PDI, UAT, and IDV."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Avoidance Index, the statistical analysis (Exhibit 4.18) shows that it made sense to divide the “bal- anced power” countries into “old” and “young” democracies. The young democracies (which de- veloped their present form of government since World War I: Austria, Finland, France, Germany, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Japan, and Turkey) tend to show higher UAI scores than do the old democra- cies (Australia, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Great Britain, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United States).°* Each of the young democracies ac- quired its present form of government after losing or winning a war in which the country played a more or less aggressive role. Lynn and Hampson (1977) have proven the continuity of their anxiety factor from 1935 to 1978 (see below). This means that the stress levels were not caused by the war, but rather contributed to the fact that countries took part in it."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Chapter 5 referred to an 11-country study by Levine, Sato, Hashimoto, and Verma (1995) about the role of love in marriage.*> Their ques- tionnaire contained the item “If love has com- pletely disappeared from a marriage, I think it is probably best for the couple to make a clean break and start new lives.” The respondents were under- graduates of both genders. Answers varied from 29% yes and 31% no in Australia to 78% yes and 13% no in Brazil. Across 10 overlapping coun- tries, percentage yes minus percentage no corre- lated with LTO with rho = .76** and not at all with any of the other indexes or GNP/capita.7° This again suggests a pragmatic attitude, not a moralis- tic one, toward marriage issues in high-LTO countries."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Women may be better able than men to balance the two sides of the manager’s nature. Statham (1987), in an in-depth interview study of 22 fe- male and 18 matched male U.S. managers and their secretaries, found that the women predomi- nantly treated job and people aspects as interde- pendent, whereas the men saw these aspects as be- ing in opposition. Gibson (1995), in a survey study about leadership conceptions among male and female managers in Australia, Norway, Swe-"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Particular expertise is demanded from mental health professionals who deal with migrants and refugees. Chapter 5 devoted a section to differ- ences in ways of dealing with health and disability in collectivist and individualist societies. The high level of acculturative stress in migrants puts them at risk for mental health disorders, and meth- ods of psychiatric treatment developed for host- country patients may not work with migrants, for cultural reasons.>* In countries with large migrant populations, such as Australia, “transcultural” psychiatry and clinical psychology have become specializations.*® One practical problem is that health insurance companies reimburse treatments on the basis of a classification system developed for Western (mainly U.S.) patients, and part of the immigrant patients’ cases do not fit into the sys- tem’s classifications.*° A related specialization is the treatment of political refugees suffering from the aftereffects of war or torture."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"The contrast between goals stressing independ- ence from the organization and goals assuming dependence has been the argument for calling this factor individual/collective and using the country factor scores as the basis for a country Individual- ism Index. The index, by a simple mathematical transformation, has been brought into a range be- tween 0 and 100: Its values for 50 countries and three regions are listed in the first column of Ex- hibit 5.1.5 The highest IDV values were found for the United States (91), Australia (90), and Great Britain (89); the lowest, for Guatemala (6), Ecua- dor (8), and Panama (11)."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Chapter 4 introduced McClelland’s (1961) country scores for “need for achievement” (n,.1,) based on a content analysis of children’s readers. Exhibit 4.13 shows across 22 countries a signifi- cant negative correlation between UAI and 1925 Dach (Tho = -.60**), It also identifies a substantial second-order positive correlation of 1925 nay with MAS (multiple regression R? with UAI .31, with UAI + MAS .44). High n,., as a national characteristic stands for a willingness to take risks (low UAI) combined with masculine assertive- ness (high MAS). Five of the seven highest nay countries were from the Anglo group (Ireland, Australia, Canada, Great Britain, and United States). The lowest n,,, country was the Nether- lands, which did not score high on UAI but scored very low on MAS.?¢"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Surprisingly, across 22 overlapping countries early pregnancies were correlated (negatively) only with national wealth, not with any of the IBM indexes. See Exhibit 6.23 in the statistical section of this chapter. Looking for cultural influences unrelated to economic development, I had a closer look at the relationships with UAI and MAS. Zero-order and multiple correlations of UAI and MAS with pregnancies among girls under 18 were virtually nil, but as Exhibit 6.23 shows, the rela- tionship was curvilinear: Pregnancy rates were high in the case of high UAI plus low MAS, but also for low UAI plus high MAS. Five out of the six low-UAI, high-MAS countries (Great Britain, United States, Australia, New Zealand, and Can-"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Tiga’s daughter described a very feminine culture, whereas her aunts preferred a masculine one. Big differences exist on this continuum even among countries in the same part of the world. For example, the cultures of the Netherlands and the Scandinavian countries are very feminine, but those of Germany, Switzerland, and Austria are strongly masculine; Costa Rica and Portugal are feminine, but Colombia and most other Latin American countries are masculine; Thailand is feminine, but Japan is very masculine. Britain and the United States are also rather masculine."-- Hofstede & Pedersen, "Exploring Culture"

"Netherlands, Korea, Germany, Austria and Sweden are being developed. The Culture Compass also allows users to place the general cultural in- formation within the context of their own organization."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Riding the Waves of Culture"

"Careers in Eiffel Tower companies are much assisted by professional qualifications. At the top of German and Austrian companies, which are typically Eiffel Tower models, the titles of professor or doctor are com- mon on office doors. This is extremely rare in the USA."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Riding the Waves of Culture"

"122. Austria is the only country in which IBM em- ployees rated themselves on question B46 as less afraid to disagree with their bosses than these bosses rated them. In Switzerland, employees and their bosses broke even in this respect."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"10. Austria and Israel (the state of Israel] was founded by Austrian intellectuals)"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Before and during World War II many German and Austrian sci- entists of Jewish descent or who were otherwise anti-Nazi fled their countries, mostly to Britain and the United States. Examples are Albert Einstein, Sigmund Freud, Karl Popper, Kurt Lewin, and Theodor Adorno. This "brain injection" has been highly beneficial to the host countries. The younger among the refugees have made substantial contributions to their scientific fields in the new country. They brought synergy between the Middle European taste for theory (rooted in strong uncertainty avoidance) and the Anglo-American sense of empiricism fostered by weak uncertainty avoidance."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Gert Jan once took a night train from Vienna to Amsterdam. An elderly Austrian lady shared his compartment and offered him some delicious homegrown apricots. Then a good-looking young black man entered. The lady seemed terrified to find herself within touching distance of a black man, and Gert Jan set to work trying to reestablish a pleasant atmosphere. The young man turned out to be a classical ballet dancer from the Dutch The Rules of the Social Game 15"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"In the Nordic countries of Denmark, Finland, Norway, and Sweden, but also in Austria, ten or more of the hundred largest corporations were owned by a cooperative; in Britain and Italy, virtually none. The share of cooperatively owned corporations was negatively correlated with mas- culinity.34 Cooperatives appeal to the need for cooperation in a feminine society."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"The reverse pattern, small power distance combined with medium col- lectivism, was found in Austria and Israel, and fairly small power distance is combined with strong collectivism in Costa Rica. Costa Rica, one of the six Central American republics, is widely recognized as an exception to the Latin American rule of dependence on powerful leaders, which in Spanish is called personalismo. Costa Rica does not have a formal army. It is described as Latin America's "most firmly rooted democracy," in spite of its relative poverty as compared with the industrial market economies of the world. In a comparison between Costa Rica and its larger but much poorer neighbor Nicaragua, U.S. development expert Lawrence E. Harrison has written:"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"In the domain of scientific theories about sex, it is remarkable that the work of Sigmund Freud (18561939) originated in Austria, a country with one of the highest MAS scores in the IBM list (79). Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis, argues for the fundamental importance of sexuality in the development of the human personality; he attributed many psycho- pathological problems to the repression of sexuality. Freud attributed penis envy (jealousy about not having one) to all women. We wonder whether an author from a less masculine society would have imagined this. Every author or scientist is a child of his or her society; Freud's work comes directly out of the masculine Austrian context in which he was raised."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Different assumptions about motivation lead to different motivation theories. The founding father of motivation theory was the Austrian Sig- mund Freud, but ironically he is rarely quoted in relation to management.41 The classic motivation theorists in a management context are Americans. We met Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of human needs in Chapters 4 and 6, and in Chapter 6 we also encountered David McClelland's theory of the achievement motive. A third popular theory about work motivation that reflects its U.S. origin is Frederick Herzberg's motivation versus hygiene."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"In 1983 a sixteen-year-old high school student from Rotterdam, whom we will call Anneke, participated in a youth exchange program between Holland and Austria. She stayed with the family of a high school teacher in a middle-sized Austrian town. There were Dr. Riedl and his wife; their daughter, Hilde (of Anneke's age); and two younger boys."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"64. One of the exceptions was Bruno Kreisky, the leader of the socialist majority party who for many years was the chancellor (prime minister). Paradoxically, Kreisky was enormously popular among large groups of the Austrian population."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Anneke went to school with Hilde. Her German improved rapidly. On Sundays she went to Mass with the Riedls, who were pious Roman Catholics. Anneke was a Protestant, but she did not mind; she liked the experience and the singing. She had taken her violin along to Austria, and after school she played pieces for violin and piano with Hilde."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"The stronger systems of rules and norms in strongly uncertainty- avoiding societies make children more often feel guilty and sinful. In fact, the education process in high-UAI societies develops in its children stron- ger superegos (the concept was developed by Sigmund Freud in high-UAI Austria). Children in these societies are more likely to learn that the world is a hostile place and are more likely to be protected from experiencing unknown situations."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Traditionally, patterns of corporate governance, the ownership and control of corporations, differ vastly among countries. A study across twelve Euro- pean countries, published in 1997,31 showed that while in Britain sixty-one of the hundred largest companies had dispersed shareholders (no single owner holding more than 20 percent), in Austria and Italy no large com- panies at all had this ownership type. The percentages of dispersed owner- ship were significantly correlated with individualism (IDV).32"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"A society's level of uncertainty avoidance has practical consequences regarding the ability of people who hold different convictions to be per- sonal friends. Stories of scientists who separated their ties of friendship after a scientific disagreement tend to come from high-UAI countries. The conflict between psychiatrists Sigmund Freud (Austria) and Carl Gustav Jung (Switzerland) is one example. In weak uncertainty-avoidance coun- tries, different scientific opinions do not necessarily bar friendships."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"European countries in which the native language is Romance (French, Ital- ian, Portuguese, Romanian, Spanish) scored medium to high on the power distance scale (in Table 3.1. from 50 for Italy to 90 for Romania). Euro- pean countries in which the native language is Germanic (Danish, Dutch, English, German, Norwegian, Swedish) scored low (from 11 in Austria to 40 in Luxembourg). There seems to be a relationship between language area and present-day mental software regarding power distance. The fact that a country belongs to a language area is rooted in history: Romance More Equal than Others 83"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"The IBM surveys had found that a preference for larger over smaller companies to work for was positively correlated not only with MAS but also with UAI. In the organizational literature large companies are often supposed to be less innovative than small ones, unless they reward intrapre- neurs who dare to break rules. This term is a pun on the word entrepreneurs, the independent self-starters who, according to the Austrian-American economist Joseph Schumpeter (18831950), are the main source of innova- tion in a society."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"UAI scores based on the IBM studies are not available over time, and we know of no studies that have measured equivalent scores longitudinally for any population. Interesting historical information about the develop- ment of anxiety over time was supplied by Richard Lynn, whose national anxiety scores were shown earlier in this chapter to correlate with UAI. Lynn was able to follow national anxiety levels for eighteen countries from 1935 to 1970.72 The five countries with the highest anxiety scores in 1935 were Austria, Finland, Germany, Italy, and Japan (the World War II Axis powers and two countries that got involved in the war on their side). From 1935 to 1950 all countries that had been defeated or occupied during World War II (193945) increased in anxiety level, while six out of the nine coun- tries not defeated or occupied decreased. The overall average was highest in 1950, shortly after the war, and then sank to an overall low in 1965, to increase again after that."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Country MAS scores were also computed separately for men and women.12 Figure 5.2 shows in simplified form the relationship between masculin- ity by gender and masculinity by country. It reveals that from the most feminine (tender) countries to the most masculine (tough) countries, both the values of men and of women became tougher, but the country differ- ence was larger for men than for women. In the most feminine countries, Sweden and Norway, there was no difference between the scores of men and women, and both expressed equally tender, nurturing values. In the most masculine countries in the IBM database, Japan and Austria, the men scored very tough and the women fairly tough, but the gender gap was largest. From the most feminine to the most masculine country, the range of MAS scores for men was about 50 percent wider than the range for women. Women's values differ less among countries than men's values"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"entist tries to illustrate formal patterns and is of necessity restricted to a bit of a communication torn out of context, he has to deal with people who take great pleasure in saying such things as, “Oh yes, but in the United States people cry when they are happy too.” This is quite true. But the fact is that we think it is “natural" to cry when sad and ‘ laugh when happy. Luckily, as I have pointed out, formal - patterns often offer a great deal of leeway in the way in which they can be expressed. The boundaries are usually well known by everyone concerned, and as long as they are not violated there is considerable range of variation allowed. The principal difference between the German and the Austrian illustrates this point. The German tends to he more tech- nical in the restrictions he places upon himself, the Austrian"-- Edward T. Hall, "The Silent Language"

"A workshop exercise under this heading asks participants how they would behave if they felt upset about something at work. Would they ex- press their feelings openly? Figure 6.1 shows the relative positions of ten countries on the extent to which exhibiting emotion is acceptable. It is least acceptable in Ethiopia and Japan, where our database shows a score of close to 80% on the neutral orientation. There are considerable vari- ances between European countries, with Austria the most neutral (59%) and Spain, Italy and France the least (19%, 33% and 30%). Note that Hong Kong and Singapore both score much lower than Japan or Indonesia; there is no general pattern by continent."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Riding the Waves of Culture"

"preted by the Germans as “Austrian charm.” Yet I believe that this friendly relationship pattern ap- plies only to face-to-face relationships, such as personally known superiors. (T. Lindner, personal communication; my translation)"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Independent of Lynn’s work and unaware of it, Hans Millendorfer (1976, p. 10) from Austria did a similar analysis of data on suicides, psychoses, accidents, and divorces from 15 countries and also found differences in stress levels among countries. Across the 12 countries studied by both Lynn and Millendorfer, their country rankings correlated with rho = .69**; and Millendorfer’s stress ranking correlated with UAI with rho = .71*** 40 Millendorfer’s study included the East- ern European countries Hungary, Czechoslova- kia, and Poland, for which I had no data. The three countries did not cluster: Hungary scored high, Czechoslovakia medium, and Poland low on stress.4!"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Country index values range from 104 for Ma- laysia (large power distance) to 11 for Austria (small power distance), with an overall mean for the 50 countries and 3 regions of 57 anda standard deviation of 22. Compare also the country clusters in Chapter 2, Exhibit 2.8."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"In the domain of scientific theories, it is re- markable that the work of Sigmund Freud (1856- 1939) originated in Austria, the country with the second-highest MAS score in the IBM list (MAS 79). Freud, of course, defended the primordial"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"The opposite pattern (no strict authority but rel- ative personal dependence on the collectivity), as found in Costa Rica, Austria, and Israel, could be called independent collectivism. The unique case of Costa Rica as Latin America’s “most firmly rooted democracy” has been discussed in Chapter 3. An Austrian psychologist interpreted his coun- try’s cultural pattern as follows:"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"45. Itis likely that power distances all over Europe were higher in the days when Freud grew up (second half of the 19th century). However, even then Austrian power distances must have been relatively low, as cul- ture patterns shift only slowly."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"A unique form of ownership, the cooperative, was found among 10% or more of the 100 largest corporations in Denmark, Finland, Norway, and Sweden, but also in Austria, and in 1% or less in Britain and Italy. In spite of the Austrian score, percentages were negatively correlated with MAS (r = -.77**). Cooperatives appeal to the need for cooperation in a feminine society."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"The common French culture of the two lan- guage areas of Belgium can be explained by their common history. For centuries Belgium was a dis- tant dependent province of foreign powers (suc- cessively of Spain, Austria, France, and the Neth- erlands); it did not gain its independence until 1831. After independence, French was the lan- guage of government, the upper classes, and sec- ondary and higher education for more than 100 years. The emancipation movement of the Dutch- speaking majority in Belgium, which led to regionalization, gained momentum only in the 1950s. Language is still a hot political issue in Belgium, in spite (or because) of the shared cul- tural traits."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"In the 18th century, philosophers such as Hume in England, Montesquieu in France, and Kant in Germany dealt with questions of national charac- ter. Popular wisdom about comparative national characteristics was codified, as in an anonymous Austrian painting in the form of a table that classi- fies 10 European nations according to each of 17 qualifiers, such as “manners,” “personality,” “worship,” and “pastimes.” The artist has not hid- den his sym- and antipathies.‘°"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Avoidance Index, the statistical analysis (Exhibit 4.18) shows that it made sense to divide the “bal- anced power” countries into “old” and “young” democracies. The young democracies (which de- veloped their present form of government since World War I: Austria, Finland, France, Germany, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Japan, and Turkey) tend to show higher UAI scores than do the old democra- cies (Australia, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Great Britain, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United States).°* Each of the young democracies ac- quired its present form of government after losing or winning a war in which the country played a more or less aggressive role. Lynn and Hampson (1977) have proven the continuity of their anxiety factor from 1935 to 1978 (see below). This means that the stress levels were not caused by the war, but rather contributed to the fact that countries took part in it."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Children in high-UAI societies are subject to stronger systems of rules and norms, and will more often feel guilty and sinful. In fact, the edu- cation process in high-UAI societies develops in its children stronger “superegos” (a concept de- veloped by Freud in Austria, UAI 70). Children in high-UAI societies are more likely to learn that the world is a hostile place and to be protected from experiencing unknown situations. In low- UAI societies, rules are more flexible and super- egos weaker; the world is pictured as basically be- nevolent, and experiencing novel situations is en- couraged."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Hoppe’s data can be used to compute best esti- mates for the scores on the IBM scale, through re- gression of the IBM scores on the Salzburg scores (the fifth column in Exhibit 3.13). For 13 coun- tries the Hoppe scores are within 10 points of the IBM scores; the outliers are Austria (+32), Portugal (-23), France (-21), Belgium (-15), and Denmark (+14). The selection and self-selection criteria for elites participating in the Salzburg seminars may have differed by country; there was also an amount of co-optation, past participants recommending (the courses to) future partici- pants with similar values. The Hoppe study pro- vided an estimated PDI score for Malta (MAT): 56."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Exhibit 6.7 they scored much lower on MAS, a mean of 1.2 instead of 45.7 across the same coun- tries in IBM. The “regressed” column shows the predictions of IBM MAS made on the basis of the elite scores. The largest deviations from the IBM data are for Sweden (+26 points) and Austria (-19 points). The Hoppe study provided an estimated MAS score of 47 for Malta."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"The most professional replication so far was done by Michael H. Hoppe (1990) for his Ph.D. dissertation. With a questionnaire containing the IBM questions plus a section on organizational learning, Hoppe approached alumni of the Salzburg Seminar, a U.S.-sponsored conference center in Austria that received in its courses elites (leaders in politics, business, labor, art, and edu- cation) from mainly European countries. The country differences found within this elite popu- lation replicated significantly those earlier found among IBM employees. For three of the four di- mensions, the IBM formulas could be used as they were; only the masculinity dimension called for a somewhat different selection of questions and computation formula (Hoppe, 1998)."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Going back to Exhibit 3.1, we find that the countries deviating most from the predicted val- ues of PDI are 20 or more points above (Panama, +30; Belgium, +29; France, +27; Guatemala, +27, Malaysia, +26; and Yugoslavia, +23) or 20 or more points below (Israel, -34; Costa Rica, -31; Austria, -29; and Pakistan, —20)."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"2. Although most high-PDI countries are also low-IDV countries, and vice versa, this is not always the case. The Latin European countries (in particular France and Bel- gium) combine large power distances with strong individualism; Costa Rica is collec- tivist with a relatively small power distance; Austria and Israel combine small power dis- tances with only medium individualism. Collapsing PDI and IDV into one dimension would obscure the unique value patterns of these countries."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Tannenbaum, Kavcic, Rosner, Vianello, and Wieser (1974), in a classic study on “hierarchy in organizations,” highlighted the differences be- tween formal employee participation structures and informal consultation. They surveyed people in five small manufacturing plants (30-130 em- ployees) in each of four countries (Austria, Italy, the United States, and former Yugoslavia), 10 small plants in Israeli kibbutzim, and five me- dium-sized plants (200-1,500 employees) in the"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"In his Ph.D. dissertation, Trompenaars (1985) reported on the answers on his questionnaire from 653 respondents, divided over nine countries, two industries (oil and hosiery), and seven job catego- ries (from unskilled labor to managers of manag- ers). He concluded that the nine countries studied could be divided into two types, “left brain” (United States, Netherlands, Sweden, Austria, and Greece) and “right brain” (Venezuela, Spain, Italy, and Singapore).?> Country scores on all subscales were correlated with this distinction, so that left-brain cultures were at the same time uni- versalist, individualist, neutral, specific, attribut- ing status by achievement, future oriented, and dominating nature; right-brain cultures were the opposite. In fact, therefore, Trompenaars found evidence for one bipolar dimension of culture, not seven."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"117. McEvedy and Jones (1978) have published population growth curves for all parts of the world. The ratios of population 1975/1700 for various parts of Eu- rope on the basis of their data are as follows: European Russia, 8.0; Scandinavia plus Finland, 7.3; Netherlands, 6.8; Great Britain plus Ireland, 6.4; Germany, 6.1; Greece, 6.0; Belgium plus Luxembourg, 5.7, Switzer- land, 5.2; Italy, 4.3; Spain, 4.3; Portugal, 4.0; Austria, 3.0; and France, 2.4. The North clearly grew much faster than the South."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"There is a close historical link between capital- ism and individualism. The stock exchange as in- vented in Britain translated Adam Smith’s idea of the market as an invisible hand into corporate ownership. Pedersen and Thomsen (1997) listed the nature of the ownership of the 100 largest companies in each of 12 European countries.*! Differences among these countries were vast. For example, in Britain 61% of the 100 largest compa- nies had dispersed shareholders (no single owner holding more than 20%); in Austria and Italy no large companies at all had this ownership type. The percentages dispersed ownership were sig- nificantly correlated with IDV (r = .65*)."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"a. The “employees afraid” question (B46): Normally, as described in Chapter 2, coun- try scores from IBM data are a mean across seven occupational categories: two catego- ries of managers and five of nonmanagers. As argued earlier in this chapter, for this question exceptionally the answers from managers should be excluded, as managers’ perceptions of employees’ fear to disagree with them are not equivalent to employees’ perceptions. The values thus computed are listed in Appendix 2, Exhibit A2.2. The range of means between the least “afraid” country, Austria, and the most “afraid,” Guatemala, is 3.64 — 2.34 = 1.30 points ona scale from 1 to 5, or about one-third of the total scale width; for mean scores across large numbers of responses (about 1,000 for Austria, 100 for Guatemala), such a range is considerable."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Geert Hofstede (born 1928) graduated from Delft Technical Uni- versity as a mechani- cal engineer and spent 10 years in Dutch in- dustry in technical and management jobs. Studying part-time, he completed a doctor- ate in social psychol- ogy at Groningen Uni- versity; his thesis was titled The Game of Bud- get Control. He subse- quently joined IBM Europe, where he founded and managed the Per- sonnel Research Department. His academic ca- reer started at IMD (Lausanne) and continued at INSEAD (Fontainebleau), the European Institute for Advanced Studies in Management (Brussels), IIASA (Laxenburg Castle, Austria), and Maas- tricht University, where he taught organizational anthropology and international management until he became Professor Emeritus in 1993. From 1980 to 1983 he returned to industry as Director of"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"The most eloquent defender of the need to limit growth has been the German-British economist E. F. Schumacher, in his 1973 book Small Is Beau- tiful: A Study of Economics as if People Mattered. “Things or people” is of course the key choice that distinguishes a masculine from a feminine value system. Governments in masculine cultures are more likely to give priority to growth and to be prepared to sacrifice the living environment for this purpose. Governments in feminine cultures are more likely to choose the reverse priority. Among the (in 1999) 15 countries of the European Union, MAS scores range from 79 (Austria) to 5 (Sweden). Resolving common issues of growth versus conservation is a major challenge for EU policy making."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Of course, good hypotheses presuppose good theory. Social science research in the Anglo- American tradition often suffers from a lack of such theory. Empirical studies degenerate into fishing expeditions equipped with powerful com- puting tools that are doomed to find only triviali- ties because they do not know what to look for (see also my critique of “catchall” ecological fac- tor analysis in Chapter 1 and my description of my own search for a theory-first approach in Chapter 2).109 A marriage between a high-UAI concern for theory and a low-UAI tolerance for empiricism represents the best of both worlds. This explains the influence of Austrian and German social sci- entists such as Kurt Lewin and Theodor Adorno, who emigrated to the United States. More in gen- eral, collaboration and exchange among scholars of different national backgrounds, and therefore different scientific approaches, can only benefit all."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Between the 1967-69 and 1971-73 survey rounds in IBM, six out of the eight goals associ- ated with MAS shifted toward a larger MAS score (manager, challenge, earnings, recognition, coop- eration, and security), the first four significantly, and two (advancement and desirable area) shifted significantly in the opposite direction (see Ex- hibit 2.6). A separate calculation of MAS from 1967-69 and 1971-73 data showed an average shift among the 19 countries using the same ques- tions in both survey rounds from MAS = 43 to MAS = 48, +5 points (against +20 points for IDV; see Chapter 5). The country lowest in 1967-69 (Sweden) shifted from 7 to 5 (-2 points) and the highest country (Austria) from 76 to 81 (+5). All these shifts are almost negligible. The gap be- tween the highest and lowest countries increased by 7 points; so once more there was no sign of con- vergence."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"The following account is by a young man from the Netherlands who went to Belgium to study for some months."-- Hofstede & Pedersen, "Exploring Culture"

"The average Belgian manager has a family idea of the organization. He or she experiences the organization as paternalistic and hierarchical, and, as in many Latin cultures, father decides how it should be done. The Belgian sees the Dutch manager as overly democratic: what nonsense that everybody consults everybody. The Dutch manager thinks in a way more consistent with the Protestant ethic than the Belgian, who thinks and acts in a more Catholic way. Most Dutch managers distrust author- ity, while Belgian managers tend to respect it."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Riding the Waves of Culture"

"On one occasion a Dutch and a Belgian manager disagreed onafiscal issue in politics. The Dutch manager let the disagreement stand, in a sep- arate compartment as he saw it, and tried to get on with other business. But for the Belgian their disagreement colored everything. The Dutch manager could not bea trusted partner if his views on the fiscal issue were so mistaken. The Dutchman's desire to move on to other business was aslight to the Belgian's feeling of profound disturbance in their re- lationship. Their business dealings were broken off."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Riding the Waves of Culture"

"116. In Belgium, De Cock, Bouwer, De Witte, and De Visch (1984) developed a questionnaire aimed at as- sessing “organizational climate and culture.” However, the questionnaire uses an imposed factor structure based on climate studies from the 1970s; its dimensions do not resemble ours. In an article in a U.S. training journal, Wallach (1983) has described the Organizational Cul- ture Index, which has three dimensions: bureaucratic, innovative, and supportive. Some aspects of these over- lap with our practice dimensions, but the source of Wallach’s operationalization is not clear."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Like the Belgian and Serbo-Croat conflicts, the Catholic-Protestant strife in Northern Ireland, the Hutu-Tutsi civil war in Rwanda and Burundi, Africa, and many other clashes are based on presumed identities, rooted in history, that reside at the conscious level of practices (symbols, heroes, and rituals; see Chapter 1) but are fed by unconscious values shared by both opponent par- ties.47 Exhibit 5.7 shows that most countries suf- fering ethnic strife combined strong uncertainty avoidance with collectivism. Ethnic conflicts are very difficult to understand, and therefore to pre- dict, by outsiders unaware of the local values, identities, and histories; often the opponents be- long to the same “civilization,” in Huntington’s terms."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"However, there are exceptions. The Latin European countries, and in particular France and Belgium, combined medium power distances with strong individualism. The French sociologist Michel Crozier has described his country's culture as follows:"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"In his early academic career, Misho specialized in early Old English and Old Norse and did translations from those languages into French and Bulgarian, published in Belgium and Bulgaria. Later, he authored four books on cultural differences as well as a number of academic articles pub- lished in Sage journals. He is a disciple and follower of Geert Hofstede and an enthusiastic advocate of his paradigm of cross-cultural analysis. This association has enabled Misho to discover some new dimensions of culture, one of which is presented in this book as an enrichment of the now classic Hofstede cultural model."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"As a young Dutch engineer, Geert once applied for a junior man- agement job with an American engineering company that had recently settled in Flanders, the Dutch-speaking part of Belgium. He felt well qualified, with a degree from the leading technical university of the country, good grades, a record of active participation in student associations, and three years' experience as an engineer with a well- known (although somewhat sleepy) Dutch company. He had written a short letter to the company indicating his interest and providing some salient personal data. He was invited for an interview, and after a long train ride he sat facing the American plant manager. Geert behaved politely and modestly, as he knew an applicant should, and waited for the other man to ask the usual questions that would enable him to find out how qualified Geert was. To his surprise, the plant manager touched on"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Language and culture are not so closely linked that sharing a language implies sharing a culture, nor should a difference in language always impose a difference in cultural values. In Belgium, where Dutch and French are the two dominant national languages (there is a small German-speaking area 390 I M PLICAT IONS"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Intercultural problems arise also because expatriate teachers bring irrelevant materials with them. A Congolese friend, studying in Brussels, recalled that at primary school in Lubumbashi her teacher, a Belgian nun, made the children recite in her history lesson "Nos anctres, les Gaulois" ("Our ancestors, the Gauls"). During a visiting teaching assignment to China, a British lecturer repeated word for word his British organizational behavior course. Much of what students from poor countries learn at uni- versities in wealthy countries is hardly relevant in their home country situation. What interest does a future manager in an Indian company have in mathematical modeling of the U.S. stock market? The know-how sup- posed to make a person succeed in an industrial country is not necessarily the same as what will help the development of a country that is currently poor."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"4. The collective form, in which all executive functions are in the hands of an executive committee of elected politicians presided over by an appointed mayor, to whom the top civil servant reports. This form was found in Belgium and the Netherlands.5"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"but are more likely to find a modus vivendi in which groups tolerate and complement each other. Countries in the lower right-hand corner often harbor considerable antagonism toward minorities and ethnic, religious, or linguistic opponent groups (Belgium!), but the universalism of the indi- vidualist state tries to guarantee that everybody's rights are respected; extremism versus others is restricted to the political margin. Finally, in countries in the lower left-hand corner, such as the United States, a major- ity will at least in theory support integration of minorities and equal rights for all. An event such as the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001, puts this tolerance to a rough test, as Arab-Americans and Arab-looking Amer- icans have experienced."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Which behaviors are considered feminine or masculine differs not only among traditional societies but also among modern societies. This is most evident in the distribution of men and women over certain professions. Women dominate as doctors in Russia, as dentists in Belgium, and as shop- keepers in parts of West Africa. Men dominate as typists in Pakistan and form a sizable share of nurses in the Netherlands. Female managers are vir- tually nonexistent in Japan but frequent in the Philippines and Thailand."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Different mind-sets must have played a role in the history of nations as long as there have been nations. Dutch sociologist Cornelis Lammers (19282009) demonstrated this fact in a case study from the early eigh- teenth century in the Spanish Netherlands (present-day Belgium). After the departure of the Spanish overlords, during a period of some ten years (170616) the territory was occupied partly by French troops, partly by British, and partly by Dutch. From the available records, Lammers com- pared the different regimes established by the three different occupying nations. The French tried to reform obsolete institutions and to estab- lish a French style of centralized, rationalized authority. The English and Intercultural Encounters 413"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"On the other hand, there remains a tendency for ethnic, linguistic, and religious groups to fight for recognition of their own identity, if not for national independence; this tendency has been increasing rather than decreasing since the 1960s. Examples are the Ulster Roman Catholics; the Belgian Flemish; the Basques in Spain and France; the Kurds in Iran, Iraq, Syria, and Turkey; the ethnic groups of former Yugoslavia; the Hutu and Tutsi tribes in Rwanda; and the Chechens in Russia."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"The child who grows up among a number of elders, peers, and juniors learns naturally to conceive of him- or herself as part of a "we," much more so than does the child in a nuclear family. A child of an extended family is seldom alone, whether during the day or at night. An African student who went to Belgium to attend university told us that this was the first time in her life she had ever been alone in a room for any sizable length of time. Conversely, northern European students returning from internships in Peru or Malaysia complained that they were never left alone by their hosts."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"In popular parlance and in the press, identity and culture are often confused. Some sources refer to cultural identity to describe what we would call group identity. Groups within or across countries that fight each other on the basis of their different identities may very well share basic cultural values; this was or is the case in many parts of the Balkans, for the Catho- lics and Protestants in Northern Ireland, and for the Flemish and French speakers in Belgium. On the other hand, persons with different cultural backgrounds may form a single group with a single identity, as in intercul- tural teams--in business, in academia, or in professional soccer."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Noorderhaven, with Bassirou Tidjani from Senegal. African scientists in Africa and African students abroad were asked to suggest value survey items. Through a "Delphi" approach, the first results were anonymously fed back to the contributors, and their comments were incorporated. The questionnaire, in an English or a French version, was then administered to samples of male and female students in the African countries Cameroon, Ghana, Senegal, South Africa, Tanzania, and Zimbabwe and outside Africa in Belgium, Germany, Great Britain, Guyana, Hong Kong, Malaysia, the Netherlands, and the United States; it yielded a total of 1,100 respondents in fourteen countries.85"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"The problem with diffuse service is that you must pay for it and the frills are expensive. The problem with specific items is that you must fiddle for small change and the airline seems niggardly. They are so worried about giving anything away that in first-class American airline seats at breakfast time, you are lucky to get a pretzel. In contrast, French, British, Dutch, and Belgian airlines will serve you a hot breakfast in the thirty-five minutes of flight time between their capitals, and you pay for it anyway. "Singapore service" is widely regarded as the acme of customer care, but Singapore Airlines is almost exclusively long-haul, with business-class passengers featured prominently, so it is somewhat easier for them to choose between these values."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"Russia and the countries of the Balkans have cultures of strong uncertainty avoidance, as do Japan, Korea, Mexico, Belgium, and France. Germanic countries are very uncomfortable with uncertainty. English-speaking countries and China tend to be more uncertainty tolerant. Singapore, Jamaica, and Den-mark are very uncertainty tolerant."-- Hofstede & Pedersen, "Exploring Culture"

"Three dimensions of culture are involved in this story: power distance, uncertainty avoidance, and masculinity. First, differences in power distance are manifest in this young manager’s account. Belgium has a larger power distance than the Netherlands does. Compared with the Dutch, the Belgians were used to a steep hierarchy and a stratified social life. Second, the two countries are wide apart on the scale of uncertainty avoidance."-- Hofstede & Pedersen, "Exploring Culture"

"Two countries can differ greatly in culture even though their people speak the same language. Take, for example, the case of the Netherlands and Vlaanderen (Flanders), the neighboring northern part of Belgium. The two countries share a common, open border and a common language, though differing in dia-E X P L O R I N G C U L T U R E"-- Hofstede & Pedersen, "Exploring Culture"

"Although the dimensions of national culture are independent of one another, some of them occur together in clusters of countries. This is notably so in Europe, where the southern countries are characterized by larger power distance, higher masculinity, and stronger uncertainty avoidance than are the northern ones. The boundary between these groups of countries more or less follows the former delimitation of the Roman Empire. The contrast between Belgium and the Netherlands is a case in point, because Belgium has a Latin culture, influenced by the Roman Empire, whereas the Netherlands was hardly affected by the Romans at all. Here is an account by a Dutchman working in Belgium for a Dutch cleaning company."-- Hofstede & Pedersen, "Exploring Culture"

"Take two companies, one in the Netherlands and one in Belgium. The first was innovation oriented. The second relied on its strong traditional reputation and the prestige ascribed to it by Belgian culture. The status of the two companies was derived from achievement and ascription re- spectively. They could have quarreled endlessly about their comparative "worth," but they did not. Rather they jointly strove to establish a repu- tation for both innovation and quality which they then achieved."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Riding the Waves of Culture"

"success. In the first place, Protestant cultures are no longer growing faster than Catholic or Buddhist ones. Catholic Belgium, for example, has a slightly higher GpP per head than the more Protestant Netherlands. Catholic France and Italy have been growing faster than the UK or parts of Protestant Scandinavia. Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, Singapore and Hong Kong are influenced by Buddhism and Confucianism. It is cer- tainly not evident that Japan's habit of promoting by seniority has weighed its corporations down beneath piles of dead wood. In short, there is no evidence that either orientation belongs to a "higher" level of development, as modernization theorists used to claim."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Riding the Waves of Culture"

"102. The great Belgian historian Pirenne (1939, Pp. 397) also saw the Roman Catholic Church as a histori- cal continuation of the Roman Empire. Swanson (1967), across 41 countries and provinces, demonstrated a rela- tionship between the kind of regime at the time of the Reformation and the adoption or rejection of Protestant- ism."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"The high scores for Belgium and France show them to be Latin countries. All Latin countries, in Europe as well as inthe Americas, show relatively high PDI values, whereas all Germanic countries (including the English-speaking ones) show lower PDI values. Latin languages indicate the cultural inheritance of the Roman Empire. Half of Belgium speaks Dutch, a Germanic language, but until recently the French language and culture in that country have been strongly dominant. In Chapter 2, I have noted the similarities in values of the linguistic groups in Belgium."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"flicts not unlike those in Belgium, but these were resolved through the splitting of the canton (creat- ing the new canton Jura). Unlike Belgium, Swit- zerland never underwent a process of forced cul- tural unification."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"The common French culture of the two lan- guage areas of Belgium can be explained by their common history. For centuries Belgium was a dis- tant dependent province of foreign powers (suc- cessively of Spain, Austria, France, and the Neth- erlands); it did not gain its independence until 1831. After independence, French was the lan- guage of government, the upper classes, and sec- ondary and higher education for more than 100 years. The emancipation movement of the Dutch- speaking majority in Belgium, which led to regionalization, gained momentum only in the 1950s. Language is still a hot political issue in Belgium, in spite (or because) of the shared cul- tural traits."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"The index values for respondents from the main language areas in Belgium show that they shared basically the same culture, which closely resem- bled the French culture. The culture gap between the Netherlands and Dutch-speaking Belgium was somewhat smaller than that between the Netherlands and French-speaking Belgium, but it was still very wide. In fact, no two countries in the IBM data with a common border and a common language were so far apart culturally, according to the IBM indexes, as Belgium and the Netherlands. The gap occurred in power distance, uncertainty avoidance, and masculinity; only in individual- ism did Belgium and the Netherlands come to- gether."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"and thus was less concentrated; in France (PDI 68) and Belgium (PDI 65), the central authority was always a person."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"61. An earlier impressionistic study by Granick (1962) of French, Belgian, German, and British execu- tives seen from an American viewpoint had found least centralization in Britain (PDI 35). French, Belgian, and German companies were more centralized, but in Ger- many (PDI 35) the central authority tended to be a team"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"In three countries the surveys were adminis- tered in two languages each: Belgium, Switzer- land, and former Yugoslavia (see Appendix 5, Ex- hibit A5.2). Both Belgium and Switzerland combined Germanic and Latin languages. In Bel- gium about 54% of the population spoke Dutch, 45% spoke French, and 1% spoke German. In Switzerland, the figures were about 75% German, 20% French, 4% Italian, and 1% Rhaeto- Romanic. In former Yugoslavia the survey was administered in Serbo-Croat and Slovene; the scores could be split to fit the present independent republics of Croatia, Serbia, and Slovenia."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"55. See, for example, Soeters (1993) about the po- litical management of the Belgian/Dutch/German Maas-Rhine region and Barmeyer (1996) about small border-crossing enterprises in the French/German Lorraine-Saarland region."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Harpaz (1990) reported results of a “meaning of work” study among representative samples of the working population in Belgium, Germany, Great Britain, Israel, Japan, the Netherlands, and the United States—a total of 8,192 respondents. Re- spondents had to rank 11 work aspects in order of importance to them: (1) a lot of opportunity to learn new things, (2) good interpersonal relations (supervisors, coworkers), (3) good opportunity for upgrading or promotion, (4) convenient work hours, (5) a lot of variety, (6) interesting work (work that you really like), (7) good job security, (8) a good match between your job requirements and your abilities and experience, (9) good pay, (10) good physical working conditions (such as light, temperature, cleanliness, low noise level), and (11) a lot of autonomy (you decide how to do your work)."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Going back to Exhibit 3.1, we find that the countries deviating most from the predicted val- ues of PDI are 20 or more points above (Panama, +30; Belgium, +29; France, +27; Guatemala, +27, Malaysia, +26; and Yugoslavia, +23) or 20 or more points below (Israel, -34; Costa Rica, -31; Austria, -29; and Pakistan, —20)."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Van Oudenhoven, Mechelse, and de Dreu (1998) asked 100 middle managers from five different national subsidiaries of a multinational corpora- tion (in Belgium, Denmark, Great Britain, the Netherlands, and Spain) to describe their most re- cent conflicts with a superior and with a col- league, and how these were handled. Whether a"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"problem-solving approach toward the superior was used related negatively to PDI and UAI (more in Denmark, Britain, and the Netherlands than in Spain and Belgium), but whether a prob- lem-solving approach toward the colleague was used related negatively to MAS (more in the Netherlands and Denmark than in the three other countries)."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Anecdotal confirmation of the difference in in- fluence that people assume to have over govern- ment decisions is found in the following story, told to me by an American resident of Belgium.%? (The United States has a UAI value of 46; Bel- gium’s is 94.) The American lived in a neighbor- hood in suburban Brussels that suffered more and more from noise pollution caused by the nearby airport. The American went around the neighbor- hood with a petition for the authorities to take noise-limiting measures. Other expatriates in the neighborhood, mainly from Britain and the Neth- erlands, all signed. The Belgians reacted to the re- quest either with a denial of the problem (“What noise?”) and refusal to sign or with resignation (“We are willing to sign but it won’t help”).°>"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"sions. It is not surprising that the Eurolink rail connection between London on the one side and Brussels and Paris on the other, through the Chan- nel Tunnel, had its fast own tracks in Belgium and France right from the beginning, but the construc- tion of a special track on the British side has been waiting for many years."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"30. The data per country were published in the first edition of Culture’s Consequences (Hofstede, 1980a, fig. 3.12). Exceptionally in this case, I combined coun- tries into groups (such as Belgium plus France) and I ac- cepted a minimum cell size of seven respondents."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Intercultural problems arise also because expa- triate teachers bring irrelevant materials with them. A Zairean friend, studying in Brussels, re- called how at primary school in Lubumbashi her teacher, a Belgian nun, made the children recite in their history lesson, Nos ancétres, les Gaulois (our ancestors, the Gauls). A British lecturer re- peated his organizational behavior course word for word during a visiting teaching assignment in China. Much of what students from poor countries learn at universities in rich countries is hardly rel- evant in their home-country situations. What is the interest for a future manager in an Indian com- pany of mathematical modeling of the U.S. stock market? The know-how supposed to make a per- son succeed in an industrial country is not neces- sarily the same as the know-how needed to de- velop a poor country."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"71. Allinall, the U.S. players cooperated more fre- quently, so the authors called the Belgians more com- petitive. In a comment, Faucheux (1976, p. 286) called the U.S. players more competitive; he saw the Belgian behavior as “legalistic,” valuing equity more than effi- ciency, and the U.S. behavior as more “realistic.” Legal- ism, of course, fits with a high UAI score."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"55. In the negative correlation the low score from Hong Kong was crucial. However, Malaysia, for which no LTO score was available, scored even lower on this factor. With estimated LTO values for the missing coun- tries Belgium (38), Guyana (10), Malaysia (40), and South African whites (30), the correlation remained highly significant, r=-.62**."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Chapter 3 related the Power Distance Index to the difference between balanced power and un- balanced power in political systems. Exhibit 3.18 shows that 20 countries in the PDI range showed balanced power and 21 in the upper-PDI range showed unbalanced power since 1975. There were 9 exceptions: France, Belgium, Portugal, and Greece, with higher PDI and balanced power; and Argentina, Iran, Pakistan, South Africa, and Taiwan, with lower PDI and unbalanced power. IDV is even more closely associated with bal- anced power than PDI: From the top 19 countries in Exhibit 5.1, 18 had balanced power since 1975 (all but South Africa); from the remaining 31 countries only 5 had balanced power (Japan, Tur- key, Greece, Portugal, and Costa Rica), and some of these went through political upheaval shortly before 1975."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"lincluded the “balanced versus unbalanced po- litical power” distinction in Chapter 3 because it made conceptual sense to relate political power to power distance. Why did individualism predict balanced political power even more accurately? For the answer to this question, we should look at two exceptional countries, Belgium and France, which produced both high PDI and high IDV (Ex- hibit 5.2) as well as balanced political power. In"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Hoppe’s data can be used to compute best esti- mates for the scores on the IBM scale, through re- gression of the IBM scores on the Salzburg scores (the fifth column in Exhibit 3.13). For 13 coun- tries the Hoppe scores are within 10 points of the IBM scores; the outliers are Austria (+32), Portugal (-23), France (-21), Belgium (-15), and Denmark (+14). The selection and self-selection criteria for elites participating in the Salzburg seminars may have differed by country; there was also an amount of co-optation, past participants recommending (the courses to) future partici- pants with similar values. The Hoppe study pro- vided an estimated PDI score for Malta (MAT): 56."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"117. McEvedy and Jones (1978) have published population growth curves for all parts of the world. The ratios of population 1975/1700 for various parts of Eu- rope on the basis of their data are as follows: European Russia, 8.0; Scandinavia plus Finland, 7.3; Netherlands, 6.8; Great Britain plus Ireland, 6.4; Germany, 6.1; Greece, 6.0; Belgium plus Luxembourg, 5.7, Switzer- land, 5.2; Italy, 4.3; Spain, 4.3; Portugal, 4.0; Austria, 3.0; and France, 2.4. The North clearly grew much faster than the South."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Huntington (1993) has predicted “the clash of civilizations” as the next phase in international politics, but what are civilizations? Some politi- cal clashes are a matter of conflicting values; oth- ers take place between parties sharing very simi- lar values. The IBM database showed that respondents from the French- and Dutch-speak- ing regions of Belgium, involved in a perennial political struggle, held much the same values. The Serbs and Croats in the Yugoslav data, two ethnic groups that in the 1990s fought a civil war, also had rather similar scores, although the Serbs were more extreme. On the other hand, the German- and French-speaking Swiss, who usually live in peace together, produced quite different value profiles (see Chapter 2 and Appendix 5)."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"France had by far the slowest population in- crease; at the same time, it supplied fewer over- seas migrants than the other countries. This was a matter of lower birthrates (that is, of voluntary birth prevention), given that death rates in France were not systematically different from those in other countries (Sauvy, 1966, p. 54). The French- speaking part of Belgium had an equally slow population increase. In the causal chain in Exhibit 3.10 I have linked slower population increases to a more static society (Sauvy, 1966, p. 30). Smaller family sizes also mean that parental authority weighed more heavily on the children."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"could be at least partly reproduced with non-IBM respondents, that the IBM questions on personal goals were acceptable as a test of values, and that it was therefore worthwhile to continue the analy- sis of the IBM data. I conducted this analysis in the period 1973-79, after I had left IBM and was based at the European Institute for Advanced Studies in Management (EIASM) in Brussels, Belgium.'? IBM allowed me to use its database for further study."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Avoidance Index, the statistical analysis (Exhibit 4.18) shows that it made sense to divide the “bal- anced power” countries into “old” and “young” democracies. The young democracies (which de- veloped their present form of government since World War I: Austria, Finland, France, Germany, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Japan, and Turkey) tend to show higher UAI scores than do the old democra- cies (Australia, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Great Britain, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United States).°* Each of the young democracies ac- quired its present form of government after losing or winning a war in which the country played a more or less aggressive role. Lynn and Hampson (1977) have proven the continuity of their anxiety factor from 1935 to 1978 (see below). This means that the stress levels were not caused by the war, but rather contributed to the fact that countries took part in it."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"The cultural component in all kinds of behavior is difficult to grasp for people who have always remained embedded in the same cultural environ- ment; it takes a prolonged stay abroad and mixing with other nationals there for us to recognize the numerous and often subtle differences in the ways they and we behave, because that is how our soci- ety has programmed us. If I take the train from Rotterdam, Holland, to Brussels, Belgium, I can usually tell the Belgian passengers from the Dutch; most Dutch people greet strangers when entering a small, enclosed space like a train com- partment, elevator, or doctor’s waiting room, but most Belgians do not."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Culture is not the same as identity. Identities consist of people’s answers to the question: Where do I belong? They are based on mutual im- ages and stereotypes and on emotions linked to the outer layers of the onion in Exhibit 1.4—sym- bols, heroes, and rituals—but not to values.*3 Pop- ulations that fight each other on the basis of their different “felt” identities may very well share the same values. Examples are the linguistic regions in Belgium, the religions in Northern Ireland, and tribal groups in Africa. A shared identity needs a shared Other: At home, I feel Dutch and very dif- ferent from other Europeans, such as Belgians and Germans; in Asia or the United States, we all feel like Europeans."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"The skill of expressing oneself in more than one language is very unevenly distributed across countries. In Europe, small and wealthy countries do better than big and poorer ones. In a 1987 sur- vey of the then 12 member countries of the Euro- pean Union, tiny Luxembourg was the champion with a mean of 2.3 foreign languages spoken (that is, in addition to the local Letzebiirgisch), fol- lowed by the Netherlands with 1.3 and both Den- mark and Flanders (the Dutch-speaking region of Belgium) with 1.0.8 At the low end came Britain and Italy, each with a mean of .3 foreign lan- guages spoken, and Ireland with .2."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Masculine culture countries strive for a tough, performance society; feminine countries, for a tender, welfare society. They get what they pay for: Across 17 developed industrial countries, the proportion of the population living in poverty var- ied from 6.8% in feminine Sweden to 16.5% in masculine United States (United Nations Devel- opment Program, 1998);% its only significant cor- relation was with MAS (r = .57**), The propor- tion of persons earning less that half the average income varied from 5.5% in Belgium to 19.1% in the United States; across the same 17 countries this again correlated only with MAS (r = .48*). The proportion of functional illiterates (people who completed school but in actual fact cannot read or write) across the 10 developed countries for which data were available varied from 7.5% in Sweden to 22.6% in Ireland; once more this corre- lated only with MAS (r= .88***),%4"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"A difference between the two types of cultures that operates specifically at the elementary and secondary school level is the expected role of par- ents versus teachers. In cultures with strong un- certainty avoidance, parents are supposed to watch over their children’s proper motivation and behavior at school—for example, by signing chil- dren’s homework assignments and/or perfor- mance records. They are sometimes invited to in- formation meetings with teachers, but they are rarely consulted. Parents are laypersons and teachers are experts who know. I experienced the embarrassed reaction of an (eminent) Belgian teacher when the parents of her English and Dutch pupils wanted to raise an issue not on her agenda (Belgium is a high-UAI country, Britain and Hol- land are much lower). In countries with weak un- certainty avoidance, it is normal for teachers to try to get parents involved in school issues: Parents’ ideas may be actively sought."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Inglehart (1990) reported percentages of na- tional populations agreeing with the following statement: “The entire way our society is orga- nized must be radically changed by revolutionary action” (p. 39). Across 17 developed countries, these percentages, although generally low (be- tween 2% and 14%, with an overall mean of 6%), correlated significantly with PDI (r = .77**).° Larger power distances were associated with more revolutionary fervor.?! The same source showed percentages of the public in 20 countries claiming to discuss politics frequently or occa- sionally (Inglehart, 1990, p. 343). Across again 17 overlapping countries, these varied from 43% in Belgium to 83% in Germany; they were signifi- cantly negatively correlated with PDI (r = —.70**).° Politics is more discussable in lower- PDI cultures."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Countries in the upper left-hand corner of Ex- hibit 5.7 may contain different groups with strong group identities but are more likely to find a mo- dus vivendi in which groups tolerate and comple- ment each other. Countries in the lower right- hand corner often harbor considerable antago- nism against minorities and ethnic, religious, or linguistic opponent groups, but the universalism of the individualist state usually at least formally tries to guarantee that everybody’s rights are re- spected; extremism versus others is restricted to the political margin. Soeters (1996) has pointed to individualism in explaining the difference in eth- nic violence between Belgium and the former Yu- goslavia. Finally, countries in the lower left-hand comer are likely to try actively to integrate minor- ities and to guarantee equal rights.”"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"So in fact only questions 1, 2, and 5 really dealt with ethnocentrism; the others are a hodgepodge of traditional versus modern views. It could as well be called a “modernity” questionnaire. The scores per respondent group were as follows: Bantus in South Africa, 47; Brazil, 41; Lebanon, 37; Turkey, 34; Israel, 33; West Germany, 30; France, 28; Japan, 23; French Canadians, 22; Eng- lish Canadians, 20; United States, 18. Across 10 countries these scores rank correlated with rho = —.89*** with both IDV and 1970 GNP/capita, us- ing IBM scores for Canada for the English Cana- dians, for East Africa for the Bantus, and for Arabic-speaking countries for Lebanon. The Bantu 1970 GNP/capita was estimated at U.S.$200. The “ethnocentrism” score for the French Canadians was not used; through regres-"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"In 2005 a New Yorkbased market research company studied the ide- als of beauty and body image among fifteen- to seventeen-year-old girls, through telephone interviews in cities in ten countries around the world: Brazil, Canada, China, Germany, Great Britain, Italy, Japan, Mexico, Saudi Arabia, and the United States. One question asked who had the most pow- erful influence on their beauty ideals. In collectivist cultures, the respon- dents most often referred to girlfriends--their in-group; in individualist cultures, they most often referred to boys (in general).33"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"its ten years from now, and responsibility toward employees were rated equally as unimportant as responsibility toward society in general and patriotism. Our first article about the business goals project described Brazilian business leaders as family entrepreneurs; to a greater degree than their colleagues in most other countries, they focused on their own inner circle, without much concern for other stakeholders, the longer-term future, society, and nation."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"In a study of "sexual harassment" in four countries in the 1990s, Bra- zilian students of both sexes differed from their colleagues in Australia, the United States, and Germany. They saw sexual harassment less as an abuse of power, less as related to gender discrimination, and more as a relatively harmless pastime.27 Brazil in the IBM research scored lower on MAS than the three other countries (49, versus 61, 62, and 66, respectively)."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"In hindsight, the 2008 financial crisis could have been predicted from our 1998 business goals study. Subsequent to the crisis, national govern- ments stepped in, trying at considerable cost to repair the damage by rebal- ancing the interests of society, wage earners, and clients with those of shareholders. In the present financial reshuffling, top leaders from other parts of the world such as the European Union, China, India, and Brazil play an increasingly important role. Whoever owns the resources sets the goals, so global business objectives will very likely shift in the direction of their values."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"In Figure 11.5, we can also look at the sheer length of the past and the sheer extension of the future to gauge short-term versus long-term. Here we see that the United States is relatively short-term, a fact much com- plained of and noted, while Hong Kong, South Korea, China, and much of Scandinavia are longer-term. The Philippines, a client state of the United States, is extremely short-term, as is Brazil. Short-termism is at least in part a consequence of the feeling that time is racing by and that as much money as possible must be made in the least possible time. But if time is recurrent and generative, then the seeds planted now will bear fruit con- tinuously in future years. That said, the correspondence between short- termism and sequential time and long-termism and synchronous time is more complex than indicated."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"The results of this research are interesting (Figure 1.2). Seven out of eight of the most universalist countries are Protestant and stable democ- racies: Switzerland, the United States, Canada, Sweden, Australia, the United Kingdom, and the Netherlands. Ireland is the exception, but this country was under British rule until 1921 and shares a common law tradi- tion. Catholics are, on the whole, less universalist: see the scores for Brazil, Spain, Poland, France, Mexico, Cuba, and Venezuela. Buddhist, Confu- cian, Hindu, and Shinto countries are more particularist still: see South Korea, China, Indonesia, Nepal, Japan, and Singapore."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"108. Of course, there have been attempts to change that. The title of the musical Jesus Christ Superstar is a case in point (although the show’s content refutes the ti- tle). The Dutch newspaper De Volkskrant reported on June 26, 1997, that the Vatican had commissioned the Brazilian designer Claudio Pastro to make a new por- trait of Jesus in which the face would not only be less Eu- ropean but also would convey not suffering but silent triumph. This looks like the masculinizing of Christ."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Chapter 5 referred to an 11-country study by Levine, Sato, Hashimoto, and Verma (1995) about the role of love in marriage.*> Their ques- tionnaire contained the item “If love has com- pletely disappeared from a marriage, I think it is probably best for the couple to make a clean break and start new lives.” The respondents were under- graduates of both genders. Answers varied from 29% yes and 31% no in Australia to 78% yes and 13% no in Brazil. Across 10 overlapping coun- tries, percentage yes minus percentage no corre- lated with LTO with rho = .76** and not at all with any of the other indexes or GNP/capita.7° This again suggests a pragmatic attitude, not a moralis- tic one, toward marriage issues in high-LTO countries."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Misho graduated from University of Sofia "St. Kli- ment Ohridski" in 1987 with a master's degree in linguistics, culture, and literature and is currently finishing his Ph.D. at the Department of Scan- dinavian Studies of the same university. He has studied anthropology at New Bulgarian University and management at the International Executive Development Center in Slovenia. In addition to his theoretical knowledge, he has gained practical cross-cultural competence during his ten years of living, studying, and working in Iceland, the Faroe Islands, Norway, Slovenia, Tunisia, the United Kingdom, and the United States. During the 1990s Misho was secretary general of the Central and East European Management Development Association (CEEMAN), based in Slovenia-- an organization of some 170 management schools and corporations from more than forty countries."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Ever since his first cross-cultural research studies, Geert has contin- ued exploring alternative sources of data, to validate and supplement his original, accidental IBM employee data set. In the past three decades the volume of available cross-cultural data on self-scored values has increased enormously. Geert used to say that if he had to start his research again, he would use a choice from these new databases. About ten years ago, Geert got into e-mail contact with a researcher in Sofia, Bulgaria, who seemed to be engaged in exactly that: scanning available databases and look- Preface xiii"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"National governments of low-fertility countries are usually concerned about raising birthrates, but they have few tools to achieve this goal. Apart from lowering education levels, which is hardly a choice, their only option is to increase the level of happiness in the country, which would enhance subjective health and optimism. Unfortunately, there is no known method for boosting the percentage of happy people in a given nation. It may seem that economic development should have such an effect. However, this pro- cess may take a long time. Between 1998 and 2008 almost all countries in the European part of the former Soviet Union, as well as Bulgaria and Romania, doubled their GNI per capita. Still, the dismally low happiness levels that characterized them at the outset of the period remained virtu- ally unchanged a decade later. And the demographic crisis that is devastat- ing all of them continued."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"In a ten-year contract between a Canadian ball-bearing producer and an Arabic machine manufacturer, a minimum annual quantity of ball- bearings was agreed upon. After about six years the orders from the Middle East stopped coming in. The Canadians' first reaction was: "This is illegal.""-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Riding the Waves of Culture"

"As Figure 5.1 shows, the highest scoring individualists are the Roma- nians, Nigerians and Canadians, closely followed by the Americans, Czechs"-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Riding the Waves of Culture"

"Canadian cross-cultural psychologist John Berry (1976) carried the study of psychological differentiation to the ecological level. Between 1964 and 1974 he tested more than 1,000 mem- bers of 21 different communities in Africa, Aus- tralia, Europe, and North America using a battery of psychological differentiation tests. He found systematic differences in levels of field depend- ence that he related to factors in the ecological and cultural situations of these communities. His research did not compare modern societies, but a number of arguments speak in favor of a link between societal masculinity and field inde- pendence:"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"53. A classic motion picture, Four Families, pro- duced by the National Film Board of Canada in 1959 with expert advice from Margaret Mead, shows the rela- tionships between parents and small children in more or less matched farm families in India, France, Japan, and Canada. Audiences to whom I showed the film (and to whom I did not mention the power distance scores) were able to rank the four countries correctly on power dis- tance just on the basis of the parent-child relationships pictured in the film."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"A classic study sponsored by the Canadian International Development Agency looked at factors determining the effectiveness of donor country personnel overseas. It covered 250 Canadian expatriates in six host coun- Intercultural Encounters 419"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Misho's monumentalism versus flexhumility dimension had been inspired by the work of Canadian psychologist Steve Heine, who saw a link between self-enhancement (a tendency to seek positive information about oneself) and self-stability or self-consistency (a tendency to believe that one should have unchangeable values, beliefs, and behaviors that do not depend on shifting circumstances).38 Although Heine referred to indi- viduals, Misho guessed that Heine's theory might also apply at the national cultural level. WVS data proved him right."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"For the multilingual countries Belgium and Switzerland, Table 3.1 gives the scores by the two largest language areas. For Canada there is an IBM score for the whole country and a replication-based score for the French-speaking part. The IBM sample for what was once Yugoslavia has been split into Croatia, Serbia, and Slovenia. The other countries in Table 3.1 all have a single score. This does not mean that they are necessarily culturally homogeneous; it means only that the available data did not allow a splitting up into subcultures."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"In 2005 a New Yorkbased market research company studied the ide- als of beauty and body image among fifteen- to seventeen-year-old girls, through telephone interviews in cities in ten countries around the world: Brazil, Canada, China, Germany, Great Britain, Italy, Japan, Mexico, Saudi Arabia, and the United States. One question asked who had the most pow- erful influence on their beauty ideals. In collectivist cultures, the respon- dents most often referred to girlfriends--their in-group; in individualist cultures, they most often referred to boys (in general).33"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"From 1940 to 1945, during World War II, Germany occupied the Neth- erlands. In April 1945, German troops withdrew in disorder, confiscating many bicycles from the Dutch population. In April 2009, the Parish Coun- cil of the Saint-Catharina church in the Dutch town of Nijkerk received a letter from a former German soldier who, on his flight to Germany from the advancing Canadians, had taken a bike that was parked in front of the church. The letter's author wished to make amends and asked the Parish Council to trace the owner or his heirs, in order to refund the injured party for the damage.8"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"people usually suffer losses," "Old people are usually stubborn and biased," and "People will stop working after they secure a comfortable life." It also reflects a view that powerful people are arrogant exploiters of less powerful individuals. According to the available data, societal cynicism is strongest in Eastern Europe, East Asia (Korea, Taiwan), Pakistan, and Thailand. It is weakest in Norway, the United States, and Canada. Societal cynicism is significantly and negatively correlated with IVR.25 This suggests that members of less indulgent and more restrained societies tend to have a more cynical outlook. Societal restriction not only makes people less happy but also seems to foster various forms of negativism. Cynicism is only one of them. Other forms will be discussed in the following sections."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"ment in France, Germany, and Great Britain. According to the criteria set by the U.S. designers of planning and control systems, British managers did a better job of strategic planning than their German and French coun- terparts; the latter two focused on details and short-term feedback. Yet the national economies of France and Germany at that time did at least as well as those of the United Kingdom and the United States. Mintzberg, himself a Canadian, has expressed strong skepticism about the effects of strategic planning.21 Rituals are effective for those who believe in them."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"The belief in the superiority of American theories is reinforced by the fact that most "international" management journals are published in the United States with U.S. editors, and it is notoriously difficult for non North American authors to get their papers accepted.70 British professors David Hickson and Derek Pugh in their anthology Great Writers on Orga- nizations included seventy-one names, of whom forty-eight were American, fifteen British, and two Canadian; only six were non-Anglo.71"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Table 7.1 lists index scores on the new dimension for the twenty-three countries that participated in the CVS. The top positions are occupied by China6 and other East Asian countries. (Japan, Hong Kong, Taiwan, South Korea, and Singapore were known in the last decades of the twentieth century as the "Five Dragons" because of their fast economic growth.) Continental European countries occupied a middle range. Great Britain and its Anglo partners Australia, New Zealand, the United States, and Canada scored on the short-term side. The African countries Zimbabwe and Nigeria scored very short-term, as did the Philippines and Pakistan."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"In 1980 Geert published an article in the U.S. journal Organizational Dynamics entitled "Motivation, Leadership, and Organization: Do Ameri- can Theories Apply Abroad?" It had a stormy history; after the untimely demise of the editor who had invited and accepted it, it was at first refused and then published hesitatingly by his successor. He asked a U.S. and an Australian colleague to write assuaging comments, which were published in a later volume, along with Geert's reply.64 The article raised an upheaval far beyond what he had expected. Many reprints were ordered, especially from Canada."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"In Figure 9.1A executives in different nations reject the proposition that "Without the right breaks one cannot be an effective leader." The United States and Canada reject this most strongly. China and Indonesia reject this the least, with 61 percent of the Chinese agreeing that "the right breaks" are necessary. Similarly, 88 percent of Canadians, 80 percent of Americans, and 83 percent of Germans agree that "Trusting to fate never turned out well" (Figure 9.1B), but only 32 percent of Singaporeans and 49 percent of Japanese agreed with this statement. Canadians and Ameri- cans, 42 percent and 38 percent, respectively, claim "There is no such"-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"It is legitimate to accuse the Prohibitionists of pseudo-universalism, be- cause they consistently refused the money needed to enforce the law, to po- lice the Canadian border, or to make medical and industrial alcohol un- drinkable."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"The newly "liberated" countries of East Europe and Russia are now more "Western" than Westerners. American values appear to have been seized upon. The United States, Canada, and Denmark are moderately specific, and East Asia and Latin America are more diffuse. Nevertheless, diffuse thinking has many adherents in the West. It does not dominate on"-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"The results of this research are interesting (Figure 1.2). Seven out of eight of the most universalist countries are Protestant and stable democ- racies: Switzerland, the United States, Canada, Sweden, Australia, the United Kingdom, and the Netherlands. Ireland is the exception, but this country was under British rule until 1921 and shares a common law tradi- tion. Catholics are, on the whole, less universalist: see the scores for Brazil, Spain, Poland, France, Mexico, Cuba, and Venezuela. Buddhist, Confu- cian, Hindu, and Shinto countries are more particularist still: see South Korea, China, Indonesia, Nepal, Japan, and Singapore."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"Finally, individualism versus communitarianism helps to explain Great Britain's reluctant Europeanism. Great Britain identifies with its former, English-speaking, white colonies--the United States, Canada and Aus- tralia are all highly individualist, even more than Great Britain itself. Eu- rope, whose Christian Democrat parties are strongly influenced by Roman Catholicism, has a Communitarian tradition, even within its right-wing parties, while Mrs. Thatcher realigned Britain's Conservative Party behind the hard-nosed American tradition of laissez-faire capitalism, where it re- mains to this day. Such forces are deeply suspicious of foreign entangle- ments and extremely skeptical that Europe can ever become more than a giant bureaucracy, qualified by corruption."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"While all political elections are results-oriented, the type of electoral sys- tem preferred varies among more specific and more diffuse cultures. Specific cultures like clear and specific outcomes. "First past the post" with a clear winner is popular with the most specifically oriented cultures-- Britain, the United States, Canada, Australia. It does more than produce specific results, it exaggerates that specificity. Hence a 10 percent plurality in a British, North American, or Australian election may produce a 40 to 200 percent majority in parliament or electoral colleges. Mrs. Thatcher never had a majority of the British electorate voting for her, although her demeanor and sense of conviction suggested otherwise. Specific cultures give vast powers to the largest organized minority."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"The questionnaire based on these logics has been administered to the follow- ing groups: U.S. executives with both extensive and limited experience of inter- national management at Applied Materials; Chinese "high fliers" working for a U.S. multinational corporation; trainees attending the Intercultural Communi- cations Institute summer school near Portland; 1,000 employees of Bom- bardier, the French-Canadian engineering company; and several European sam- ples. The following trends are already evident."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"A visit to the customer only increased their confusion. The contract had apparently been cancelled unilaterally by the Arabs because the Canadian contract-signer had left the company. The so-called universally applicable law was not considered relevant any more in the eyes of the Arabs. What could the Canadians say against this logic, especially when they discovered that the ball-bearings were never even used? It turned out that the product was purchased solely out of the particular loyalty to the Canadian contract-signer, not because of a felt legal obligation."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Riding the Waves of Culture"

"the British IBM scores. Georgas, Berry, Shaw, Chris- takopoulou, and Mylonas (1996) found that family val- ues of Greeks in Canada, Germany, and the Netherlands depended more on age than on generation and host coun- try, just as in Greece itself. Rosenthal and Feldman (1992) compared first- and second-generation Chinese in Australia and the United States and found an erosion of ethnic identification but no increase in individualism. Lalonde and Cameron (1993), however, found shifts to- ward mainstream values for students in Canada from four ethnic groups compared to their parents: blacks from the Caribbean, Chinese, Greeks, and Italians."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"43. I have suggested that in masculine cultures “teachers openly praise good students” (Hofstede, 1986a). In 1987, Dr. M. Karen O’Kain from Canada wrote to me and related that in her experience in mascu- line cultures such as Canada and Jamaica, openly prais- ing students was difficult to sell to teachers; as positive reinforcement it was seen as a nurturing activity that conflicted with their masculine value system. I guess the difference is whether praise is given in a way that im-"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"A landmark study on “overseas effectiveness” was published by Hawes and Kealey (1979). The researchers questioned 250 expatriates working for the Canadian International Development Agency in six host countries, as well as 90 host- country counterparts. They distinguished three components of effectiveness:"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"what they would have been for an IBM-type popu- lation. Nasierowski and Mikula (1998) used a similar approach to obtain scores for Poland; they used a carefully matched sample of Canadian re- spondents as their anchor to the original scores. The results of these studies are included in Appen- dix 5."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Boehnke, Scott, and Scott (1996, p. 135) com- pared factors affecting students’ academic perfor- mance, collecting opinions from students, par- ents, and teachers in three Asian countries (Hong Kong, Japan, and Taiwan) and four Western ones (Australia, Canada, Germany, and the United States). They found that aggressive behavior by students was negatively correlated with academic performance in East Asia but hardly in the West- ern countries. Students’ self-esteem was posi- tively correlated with academic performance in the West, but hardly in the East."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"So in fact only questions 1, 2, and 5 really dealt with ethnocentrism; the others are a hodgepodge of traditional versus modern views. It could as well be called a “modernity” questionnaire. The scores per respondent group were as follows: Bantus in South Africa, 47; Brazil, 41; Lebanon, 37; Turkey, 34; Israel, 33; West Germany, 30; France, 28; Japan, 23; French Canadians, 22; Eng- lish Canadians, 20; United States, 18. Across 10 countries these scores rank correlated with rho = —.89*** with both IDV and 1970 GNP/capita, us- ing IBM scores for Canada for the English Cana- dians, for East Africa for the Bantus, and for Arabic-speaking countries for Lebanon. The Bantu 1970 GNP/capita was estimated at U.S.$200. The “ethnocentrism” score for the French Canadians was not used; through regres-"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Avoidance Index, the statistical analysis (Exhibit 4.18) shows that it made sense to divide the “bal- anced power” countries into “old” and “young” democracies. The young democracies (which de- veloped their present form of government since World War I: Austria, Finland, France, Germany, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Japan, and Turkey) tend to show higher UAI scores than do the old democra- cies (Australia, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Great Britain, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United States).°* Each of the young democracies ac- quired its present form of government after losing or winning a war in which the country played a more or less aggressive role. Lynn and Hampson (1977) have proven the continuity of their anxiety factor from 1935 to 1978 (see below). This means that the stress levels were not caused by the war, but rather contributed to the fact that countries took part in it."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Thus all four of the Harvard principles for com- ing to mutually acceptable agreements reflect U.S. culture (high IDV, medium PDI, low UAT) and are not necessarily applicable to intercultural negotiations. The fact that intercultural negotia- tions demand different approaches has not always been obvious, especially to businesspeople. Adler and Graham (1989) conducted a negotiation simu- lation with more than 400 Canadian, Japanese, and U.S. businesspersons and found that the U.S. negotiators were the least adaptable; when negoti- ating internationally they did not change their be- havior, they only felt less satisfied afterward."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"This implies that it would be prudent for re- searchers to be modest in identifying effective and ineffective planning and control systems in other cultures. Chapter 4 referred to the study of top management control in France, Germany, and Great Britain by Horovitz (1980). By the criteria set by the U.S. designers of planning and control systems, British managers did a better job of stra- tegic planning than their German and French counterparts; the latter focused on details and short-term feedback. Yet the national economies of France and Germany did not do worse than those of the United States and Great Britain. The Canadian Henry Mintzberg (1993) has expressed strong skepticism about the effects of strategic planning. Rituals are effective for those who be- lieve in them."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Chapter 4 introduced McClelland’s (1961) country scores for “need for achievement” (n,.1,) based on a content analysis of children’s readers. Exhibit 4.13 shows across 22 countries a signifi- cant negative correlation between UAI and 1925 Dach (Tho = -.60**), It also identifies a substantial second-order positive correlation of 1925 nay with MAS (multiple regression R? with UAI .31, with UAI + MAS .44). High n,., as a national characteristic stands for a willingness to take risks (low UAI) combined with masculine assertive- ness (high MAS). Five of the seven highest nay countries were from the Anglo group (Ireland, Australia, Canada, Great Britain, and United States). The lowest n,,, country was the Nether- lands, which did not score high on UAI but scored very low on MAS.?¢"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Leadership and Organization: Do American The- ories Apply Abroad?” (Hofstede, 1980b). It had a stormy history; after the untimely demise of the editor who had invited and accepted it, the article was at first refused and then published with hesi- tation by his successor. The new editor invited a U.S. and an Australian colleague to write assuag- ing comments, which were published in a later is- sue along with my reply.! The article raised an upheaval far beyond what I had expected; init I ar- gued, with empirical support, that generally ac- cepted U.S. theories such as those of Maslow, Herzberg, McClelland, Vroom, McGregor, Likert, Blake and Mouton, might not apply, or only very partially apply, outside the borders of their coun- try of origin—assuming they did apply within those borders. Among the requests for reprints of the article, by the way, a larger number were from Canada than from the United States itself."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"In China, Japan, and Southeast Asia books start at what is for westerners "the back" and end at "the front." Instead of reading from left to right later- ally as we do, they read from right to left and usually in vertical columns."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"The use of Chinese kanji, or picture words, primarily conveying composite meanings; the recently published Japan Inc., by Shotaro Ishinomori, con- sisting largely of strip cartoons translated (by Alan G. Gleason) from Japanese; even the manga read by sober Japanese commuters on the sub- way--are all evidences of diffuse ways of thinking not confined to artists and children."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"Michael Harris Bond,* a social psychologist at Hong Kong Polytechnic University. Their work on the Chinese Values Survey opened Hofstede's eyes to the fifth dimension of culture: long-term / short-term orientation. Additionally, Hofstede views Robert McCrae,* a personality psychologist at the National Institute of Aging, as "the main contemporary authority on personality measurement and one of the champions of the `big five' dimensions of personality."4"-- Erdman, study guide to Hofstede's "Culture's Consequences"

"ChineseValue Survey: a study that the social scientist Michael Harris Bond conceived in the early 1980s that asked Chinese colleagues to produce a questionnaire reflecting Chinese (instead ofWestern) values. People around the world took the survey, and the results identified another dimension of culture."-- Erdman, study guide to Hofstede's "Culture's Consequences"

"Many countries of East Asia, like China and Japan, are considered to be long-term oriented, but some are not, for example, the Philippines. Most European and American countries are fairly short-term oriented. The Dutch, with a reputation in Europe for stinginess, are long-term oriented by European standards. African countries and Pakistan are very short-term oriented."-- Hofstede & Pedersen, "Exploring Culture"

"and only then—read on and find out how a number of other people interpreted the picture. These people ranged in age from fourteen to fifty and came from Bolivia, China, Ethiopia, France, Indonesia, Italy, the Netherlands, Peru, Tunisia, and Uganda."-- Hofstede & Pedersen, "Exploring Culture"

"The Chinese audience listened politely to this presentation but was quiet when invited to ask questions. Finally one manager put up his hand and said: "Can you tell us about pay for performance?""-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Riding the Waves of Culture"

"In one case a Dutch doctor whose job was to evaluate a Chinese sub- ordinate in the company clinic had a "frank discussion" of the latter's shortcomings. In his view these could easily be remedied by the com- pany's training courses. Yet to the Chinese doctor who had worked closely with the Dutch doctor, and whom he regarded as a "father fig- ure," the criticism was a savage indictment, a total rejection and a be- trayal of mutual confidence. The next morning he knifed his critic to death. It is easy to imagine the Dutch ghost protesting that he had never said his Chinese colleague was not a great fellow; it was only his medi- cine he was worried about."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Riding the Waves of Culture"

"In China in the days of Mao and the Cultural Revolution, neither markets nor rules nor hier- archy but indoctrination was the attempted prin- ciple of control in organizations, in line with a national tradition that for centuries used compara- tive examinations as a test of adequate indoctrina- tion. Political developments since 1989 have shown this principle still to be popular with Chi- nese leaders."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"The Chinese Value Survey was translated from Chinese into English, and, through a series of checks by different bilingual persons, two ver- sions (one in Chinese, one in English) were pre- pared that were as closely as possible equivalent. Colleagues from the International Association for Cross-Cultural Psychology helped to administer the questionnaire to 100 students—50 men, 50 women—in each of 22 countries around the world, Asian and non-Asian. After the initial pub- lication of the results (see Chinese Culture Con- nection, 1987), data for mainland China were added, increasing the number of countries to 23. Eight other language versions were translated, where possible, directly from the Chinese. Re- spondents were taken from any class year, and from as wide a range of undergraduate majors as possible, within institutions of higher learning with relatively high admission standards accord- ing to local ratings."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"The Chinese collectivist participants performed best when operating with a group goal and anonymously. They performed worst when oper- ating individually and with their names marked on the items produced. The American individualist participants performed best when operating individually and with their names marked but abysmally low when operat- ing as a group and anonymously. All participants were also given a values test to determine their personal individualism or collectivism: a minority of the Chinese scored individualist, and these performed according to the U.S. pattern; a minority of the Americans scored collectivist, and these performed like the Chinese.46"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"The Chinese scholars who designed the CVS questionnaire chose to include them. Considering these values relevant was a matter of Chinese judgment. Some other values embraced in the Western- conceived IBM dimensions, in particular those related to uncertainty avoidance, were not included in the CVS. This does not mean that they did not make sense in China: for example, uncertainty avoid- ance accounts for striking differences between Chinese and Japanese culture."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"The Chinese Value Survey research revealed an important difference between Eastern and Western thinking. The CVS questionnaire, designed by Eastern minds, did not detect the uncertainty avoidance dimension. The IBM and Rokeach Value Survey questionnaires, both designed by Western minds, did not detect long- versus short-term orientation. The other three dimensions deal with basic human relationships that were recognized by the questionnaire designers both in the East and in the West."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"The Chinese student, if he has been initially educated in his own culture, and in his own language, will have begun to use a set of cognitive processes which give him a "fix" on the world of a very distinctive kind. . . . It is possible to see some rationale for the noticeable tendency of Chinese to excel in certain subjects, particularly the applied sciences, where "the individual and the concrete" is paramount, and for their tendency not to move natu- rally into the abstract realms of philosophy and sociology."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Bond's Chinese Value Survey study among students in twenty-three countries, described in Chapter 2, produced a moral discipline dimension on which the countries positioned themselves largely in the same way as they had done in the IBM studies on power distance (in statistical terms, moral discipline was significantly correlated with PDI).11 Students in countries scoring high on power distance answered that the following were particu- larly important:"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"In the Chinese Value Survey, saving face can be seen as a form of self-enhancement, and personal steadiness and stability is the same thing as self-consistency; both goals appear at the short-term pole of the LTO- CVS dimension. This explains the negative correlation between LTO and monumentalism. On monumentalism too, East Asian countries formed a compact cluster at one pole (flexhumility). African and Islamic countries were found closer to the opposite pole (monumentalism), and so was the United States."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"In China, in the days of Mao and the Cultural Revolution, it was neither markets nor rules nor hierarchy but indoctrination that was the attempted principle of control in organizations, in line with a national tradition that for centuries used comparative examinations as a test of adequate indoctrination."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"The Chinese Value Survey was conducted in 1985 and covered twenty- three countries around the world; the LTO index derived from it not only correlated with the economic growth of these countries in the preceding twenty years (196585) but also turned out to even better predict their growth in the next ten years (198595).67"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"The Roman and Chinese Empires were both powerful centralized states, supporting a culture pattern in their populations prepared to take orders from the center. The two empires differed, however, in an important respect. The Roman Empire had developed a unique system of codified laws that in principle applied to all people with citizen status regardless of origin. The Chinese Empire never knew this concept of law. The main continuous principle of Chinese administration has been described as "gov- ernment of man," in contrast to the Roman idea of "government by law." Chinese judges were supposed to be guided by broad general principles, like those attributed to Confucius (see Chapter 7)."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"In the overseas Chinese environment, family and work are not sepa- rated. Family enterprises are normal. The values at the LTO pole sup- port entrepreneurial activity. Persistence (perseverance), or tenacity in the pursuit of whatever goals one has set, is an essential asset for a beginning entrepreneur. Ordering relationships by status and observing this order reflects the Confucian stress on unequal relationship pairs. A sense of a harmoni- ous and stable hierarchy and complementarities of roles makes the entre- preneurial role easier to play. Thrift leads to savings and to the availability of capital for reinvestment by oneself or one's relatives. The value of having a sense of shame supports interrelatedness through sensitivity to social con- 244 DI M E N S ION S OF NAT IONA L C U LT U R E S"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Unlike the case with the Chinese Value Survey, the African Value Sur- vey did not reveal a new, African-inspired value dimension. It produced six factors. Four of these were significantly correlated each with one of the IBM dimensions. One other was trivial, caused by differences between the two language versions.86 The remaining factor (the second strongest in Noorderhaven and Tidjani's analysis), traditional wisdom, was signifi- cantly correlated with LTO-CVS and opposed the African countries (and some of the European countries) to the Asian countries in the study.87 Distinctive items on the short-term pole of this dimension were "Wisdom is more important than knowledge" and "Wisdom comes from experience and time, not from education." These statements fiercely oppose Confucian values."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Students of Chinese culture recognized in these values elements of the teachings of Confucius, to whom we referred in Chapters 3 and 4."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Paradoxically, in the other China (which expelled the Kuomintang), the People's Republic, the 196676 Cultural Revolution experiment can also be interpreted as an attempt to maintain the authority of the ruler (in this case Chairman Mao Zedong, 18931976) while rejecting the authority of the rules, which were felt to suffocate the modernization of the minds. The Cultural Revolution is now publicly recognized as a disaster. What passed for modernization may in fact have been a revival of centuries-old unconscious fears."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"theoretical perspectives--Chinese or North American. LTO-CVS and monumentalism overlapped only partly, because monumentalism does not predict thrift or persistence, and LTO-CVS is not about religious- ness. The correlation between the two indexes encouraged a search for WVS items that would replicate the meaning of both poles of the LTO-CVS dimension."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"their love. First-generation Chinese-Vietnamese immigrant mothers men- tioned contributing to their children's education and financial situation; these mothers did not mention any benefits to themselves. The first group went for short-term benefits, the second for long-term benefits.13"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"The two other countries in Table 9.2, China and Germany, were the most dissimilar from the international average. China's profile neverthe- less resembled India's in a number of respects. Both China and India put patriotism much higher than average, together with power, and both rated this year's profits and staying within the law less important than aver- age. Notable differences between China and India were that China placed respecting ethical norms even higher than the United States, while India put it at the bottom. China also rated responsibility toward society in gen- eral much more important than average, as well as face (the Chinese term for honor and reputation); face surpassed personal wealth, which was rated much less important."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"The Dream of the Red Chamber is a famous Chinese novel that was published around 1760. In it the author, Cao Xueqin, describes the rise and fall of two branches of an aristocratic family who live in adja- cent plots in Beijing. In between their properties they have laid out a magnificent common garden with several pavilions, for the young, mostly female, members of both families. The maintenance of such a big garden poses many problems, until one of the young women, Tan Chun, is put in charge. She announces a new business plan:"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"The biggest difference between the Chinese and the Western society is that the Western society worships the hero and the Chinese worship the saint. If one is good in doing one thing, one can be a hero. To be a saint, you have to be good in everything."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Confucius (or K'ung-tzu, as he is called in Chinese) was an intellectual of humble origins in China around 500 b.c. He sought, rather unsuccess- fully, to serve various local rulers in the divided China of his day. He did succeed, however, in gaining a reputation for wit and wisdom, and in his later life he was surrounded by a host of disciples who recorded his ideas. Confucius thus held a position rather similar to that of Socrates in ancient Greece, who was his virtual contemporary (Confucius was born about eighty years before Socrates)."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"IVR did not relate to LTO-CVS, but Michael Bond's Chinese Value Survey reported another dimension, labeled moral discipline; in Chapter 3 we found it to correlate with power distance. Its two poles were "moral restraint" versus "lack of a strongly disciplined stance."22 The items that defined the positive pole of this dimension were "moderation," "keeping oneself disinterested and pure," and "having few desires." As these items are easy to associate with restraint, one would expect a negative corre- lation with indulgence. Indeed, such a correlation exists.23 Societies that score higher on indulgence have lower scores on moral discipline. Their members are less likely to value moderation and to have few desires."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Kahn's hypothesis remained unproved until the Chinese Value Survey appeared. Economic growth in the last three decades of the twentieth cen- tury was highly significantly correlated with LTO-CVS; this was Geert's initial reason for adopting long-term orientation as a fifth dimension."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"According to Danish sinologist Verner Worm, the Chinese give prior- ity to common sense over rationality. Rationality is abstract, analytical, and idealistic, with a tendency to logical extremes, whereas the spirit of common sense is more human and in closer contact with reality.30"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"It also is noteworthy that it took an East Asian instrument, the Chinese Value Survey, to isolate a dimension that proved the role of culture in the development of East Asia and to provide an explanation of the economic success of the Dragons. In the meantime, we moved one step further: we discovered that similar conclusions can be drawn from data that had been hidden in the World Values Survey, basically a Western instrument. The logic of the growth of the Dragons now extends to the growth of several Eastern European economies between 1995 and 2005."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Gordon Redding, in a book based on interviews with overseas Chinese businessmen, divided the reasons for respondents' efficiency and failure into four parts: vertical cooperation, horizontal cooperation, control, and adaptiveness. About vertical cooperation he wrote:"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"It was evident that Western logic often did not apply in Africa. The example of Bond's Chinese Value Survey led Geert to suggest a similar exercise for Africa: asking Africans to develop a values questionnaire, administer this instrument in both African and non-African countries, and see whether any new dimension emerged that explained why Western recipes for development don't seem to work in Africa."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Table 9.2 shows the profiles for five important economies: the United States, India, Brazil, China, and Germany. The scores for the United States were produced by M.B.A. students from five universities in different regions of the country; the five produced almost identical goal rankings. Their consensus ranking closely resembled the seventeen-country average from Table 9.1; none of the other sixteen countries came closer. Four of the top five goals--growth, personal wealth, this year's profits, and power-- were rated even more important for U.S. business leaders than for their colleagues elsewhere. In the past half century, U.S. business has grown into a model for global business; the master of business administration course is an American invention."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"The differences between LTO-CVS and LTO-WVS are that the first originated from a survey designed by Chinese scholars, and it produced its highest score for mainland China. In the first part of this chapter we inter- preted the implications of the LTO dimension with its Chinese origins in mind. Its scores are available for only twenty-three countries, and attempts at expansion using the same questions produced disappointing results."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"It is a common question why an active tradition of scientific investi- gation failed to develop in China in the way it did in the West. The most appealing explanations for it center upon differences in cognitive structures of a fundamental kind.63"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"In late 1980, just after Culture's Consequences had been published, Geert met Michael Harris Bond, from the Chinese University of Hong Kong. Bond and a number of his colleagues from the Asia-Pacific region had just finished a comparison of the values of female and male psychology students from each of ten national or ethnic groups in their region.11 They had used an adapted version of the Rokeach Value Survey (RVS), devel- oped by U.S. psychologist Milton Rokeach on the basis of an inventory of values in U.S. society around 1970. When Bond analyzed the RVS data in the same way that Geert had analyzed the IBM data, he also found four meaningful dimensions. Across the six countries that were part of both studies, each RVS dimension was significantly correlated with one of the IBM dimensions.12"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"The influence of the political context was evident in the country that was the cradle of Confucianism, mainland China. Overseas Chinese were at the core of the economic miracles in Hong Kong, Singapore, and Tai- wan and contributed to the emerging economies of Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, and the Philippines. They seem to have been able to use their entrepreneurial skills better than their relatives who stayed in the mother country."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"CONFUCIAN DYNAMISM : a dimension of national cultures found through research among student samples using the Chinese Value Survey. Rebap- tized in this book long-term versus short-term orientation (see under these catchwords)."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"An American teacher at a foreign-language institute in Beijing exclaimed in class, "You lovely girls, I love you." Her students, according to a Chinese observer, were terrified. An Italian professor teaching in the United States complained bitterly about the fact that students were asked to formally evaluate his course. He did not think that students should be the judges of the quality of a professor. An Indian lecturer at an African university had a student who arrived six weeks late for the curriculum, but he had to admit him because he was from the same village as the dean. Intercultural encounters in schools can lead to much perplexity.13"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"common dimension was the result of an empirical statistical analysis at the country level; it was not a matter of either Western or Chinese judgment.4"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"LONG -TERM ORIENTATION INDEX (LTO): a measure for the degree of long- term orientation in a country's culture. LTO-CVS scores are based on the Chinese Value Survey among student samples; LTO-WVS scores are based on the World Values Survey of representative samples of national populations."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"A talent for the concrete implies a talent for solving practical problems. What works is more important in high-LTO cultures than why it works. China's Chairman Deng Xiaoping is credited for the dictum "What does the color of the cat matter as long as it catches mice?""-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Michael Bond, a Canadian having lived and worked in the Far East since 1971, found a creative solution to the Western bias problem. He asked a number of his Chinese colleagues from Hong Kong and Taiwan to help him compose a list of basic values for Chinese people. The new question- naire was called the Chinese Value Survey (CVS). It was administered in translation to one hundred students, fifty men and fifty women, in each of twenty-three countries around the world. A statistical analysis of the CVS results yielded again four dimensions. Across twenty overlapping coun- 38 THE CONCEPT OF CULTURE"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"ing. It usually confirms each group in its own identity. Members of the other group are perceived not as individuals but rather in a stereotyped fashion: all Chinese look alike; all Scots are stingy. As compared with the heterostereotypes about members of the other group, autostereotypes are fos- tered about members of one's own group. Such stereotypes will even affect the perception of actual events: if a member of one's own group attacks a member of the other group, one may be convinced ("I saw it with my own eyes") that it was the other way around."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"The question Duke Ching put before Confucius 2,500 years ago is still as topical as ever: What is good government? In 19992000 social scientists from East Asia (China, Japan, and South Korea) and from Nordic Europe (Denmark, Finland, and Sweden) in a joint project surveyed rep- resentative samples of the populations of their countries about the same issue. The survey showed differences in opinions about how the relation- ship between rulers and citizens should be, reflecting the countries' differ- Yesterday, Now, or Later? 275"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"During the Industrial Revolution in the West, the search for Truth led to the discovery of laws of nature that could then be exploited for the sake of human progress. Chinese scholars, despite their high level of civilization, never discovered Newton's laws. They were simply not looking for laws. The Chinese script betrays this lack of interest in generalizing. It needs three thousand or more different characters, one for each syllable, while by splitting the syllables into separate letters, Western languages need only about thirty signs. Western analytical thinking focused on elements, while Eastern synthetic thinking focused on wholes. A Japanese Nobel Prize winner in physics is quoted as having said that "the Japanese mentality is unfit for abstract thinking."34"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"On uncertainty avoidance we again find the countries with a Romance language together. These heirs of the Roman Empire all score on the strong uncertainty-avoidance side. The Chinese-speaking countries Tai- wan, Hong Kong, and Singapore score low on uncertainty avoidance, as do countries with important minorities of Chinese origin: Thailand, Indone- sia, the Philippines, and Malaysia."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"The teachings of Confucius are lessons in practical ethics without a religious content. Confucianism is not a religion but a set of pragmatic rules for daily life derived from Chinese history. The following are the key principles of Confucian teaching:"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"On the other hand, the economic life in collectivist societies, if not dominated by government, is in any case based on collective interests. Family enterprises abound; in the People's Republic of China, after the economic liberalization of the 1980s, villages, the army, and municipal police corps units started their own enterprises."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"by barbarians (such as England), and in former colonies of these entities. Thus, some roots of the mental program called power distance go back at least to Roman times--two thousand years ago. Countries with a Chinese (Confucian) cultural inheritance also cluster on the medium to high side of the power distance scale--and they carry a culture at least four thousand years old."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"The contrast between the two intellectual traditions explains the fact that IBM employees from countries with a Roman inheritance scored higher on uncertainty avoidance than their colleagues from countries with a Chinese inheritance. It is another powerful illustration of the deep historical roots of national culture differences. Their long history should make us modest about expectations of fundamental changes in these value differences within our lifetime."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"In 2005 a New Yorkbased market research company studied the ide- als of beauty and body image among fifteen- to seventeen-year-old girls, through telephone interviews in cities in ten countries around the world: Brazil, Canada, China, Germany, Great Britain, Italy, Japan, Mexico, Saudi Arabia, and the United States. One question asked who had the most pow- erful influence on their beauty ideals. In collectivist cultures, the respon- dents most often referred to girlfriends--their in-group; in individualist cultures, they most often referred to boys (in general).33"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"LTO-WVS tries to replicate the essence of long-term orientation from a massive and permanently updated survey database that originated in Europe and expanded worldwide under American leadership--a product of Western minds. It lacks the Chinese flavor of the earlier study. However, it allows us to expand the basic distinctions from the CVS to many more countries."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"None of us was present when culture patterns started to diverge between peoples: the attribution of causes for these differences is a matter of educated speculation on the basis of historical and prehistorical sources. Both the Roman and the Chinese Empires were ruled from a single power center, which presupposes a population prepared to take orders from the center. The Germanic part of Europe, on the other hand, was divided into small tribal groups under local lords who were not inclined to accept direc- tives from anybody else. It seems a reasonable assumption that early state- hood experiences helped to develop in these peoples the common mental programs necessary for the survival of their political and social systems."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Germany's profile represents almost a reversal of the international ranking in Table 9.1. In Germany four of the five international top goals were rated less important, and responsibility toward society in general was rated even higher than in China. As in India (and China), profits ten years from now were rated more important than this year's profits."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Western psychology assumes that people seek cognitive consistency, meaning that they avoid mutually conflicting bits of information. This seems to be less the case in East and Southeast Asian countries.31 In com- parison with North Americans, the Chinese viewed disagreement as less harmful to personal relationships than injury or disappointment. A differ- ent opinion did not hurt their egos.32 250 DI M E N S ION S OF NAT IONA L C U LT U R E S"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Possible origins of power distance differences were explored in Chapter 3. The grouping of countries suggested that the roots of the differences could go back as far as the Roman Empire two thousand years ago. In East Asia it assumed roots in the even older Chinese Empire. Both empires left a legacy of large power distances."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Christopher Earley, a management researcher from the United States, has illustrated the difference in work ethos between an individualist and a collectivist society very neatly with a laboratory experiment. In the experi- ment forty-eight management trainees from southern China and forty- eight matched management trainees from the United States were given an "in-basket task." The task consisted of forty separate items requiring between two and five minutes each, such as writing memos, evaluating plans, and rating job candidates' application forms. Half of the participants in each country were given a group goal of two hundred items to be com- pleted in an hour by ten people; participants in the other half were each given an individual goal of twenty items. Also, half of the participants in I, We, and They 121"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Individualist societies not only practice individualism but also consider it superior to other forms of mental software. Most Americans feel that individualism is good and that it is at the root of their country's greatness. On the other hand, the late chairman Mao Zedong of China identified individualism as evil. He found individualism and liberalism responsible for selfishness and aversion to discipline; they led people to placing personal interests above those of the group or simply to devoting too much attention to their own things. In Table 4.1 the places with a predominantly Chinese population all score very low on IDV (Hong Kong 25, mainland China 20, Singapore 20, Taiwan 17). 128 DI M E N SION S OF NAT IONA L C U LT U R E S"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"A case study that should encourage modesty about ethics in politics is the international drug trade. Western countries for decades have been involved in a virtual war to prevent the importation of drugs. Not so long ago, from 1839 to 1842, a Western country (Britain) fought an "Opium War" with Imperial China. The Chinese emperor took the same position that Western governments are taking now: trying to keep drugs out of his country. The British, however, had strong economic interests in a Chinese market for the opium they imported from India, and through an active sales promotion they got large numbers of Chinese addicted. The British won the war, and in the peace treaty they not only got the right to continue import- ing opium but also acquired Hong Kong Island as a permanent foothold on the Chinese coast. The returning of Hong Kong to China in 1997 in a way was a belated victory for the Chinese in their war against drugs.56"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Different individuals within the same organizational unit do not necessarily give identical answers to questions about how they see their organization's practices. The IRIC study did not look at differences among individuals: its concern was with differences among organizational cultures. Michael Bond, at the Chinese University of Hong Kong, who was interested in indi- vidual differences, offered to reanalyze the IRIC database from this point of view. Chung-Leung Luk, at that time Bond's assistant, performed the necessary computer work. His results show the structure in the variation of individual scores around the means of the organizational units: in what ways individuals' answers differed after organization culture differences were eliminated. This extension of the IRIC project has been described in a joint paper by Hofstede, Bond, and Luk.25"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"The correlations of IVR with the IBM dimensions described in this book are as follows: IVR shows a weak negative correlation with power dis- tance (PDI), indicating a slight tendency for more hierarchical societies to be less indulgent. It is not correlated with the other IBM dimensions, nor with long-term orientation as measured with the Chinese Values Survey (LTO-CVS).16"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Corruption, of course, presumes corruptors. Along with the CPI, Transparency International periodically publishes a Bribe Payers Index (BPI). Across twenty-two exporting countries, BPI 2008 scores were not correlated with UAI but were inversely correlated with the export- ing country's national wealth--exporters from poorer countries such as China and India pay more bribes. The exporting country's power distance also played a sizable role--exporters from countries with a higher PDI pay more bribes.62"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Intercultural problems arise also because expatriate teachers bring irrelevant materials with them. A Congolese friend, studying in Brussels, recalled that at primary school in Lubumbashi her teacher, a Belgian nun, made the children recite in her history lesson "Nos anctres, les Gaulois" ("Our ancestors, the Gauls"). During a visiting teaching assignment to China, a British lecturer repeated word for word his British organizational behavior course. Much of what students from poor countries learn at uni- versities in wealthy countries is hardly relevant in their home country situation. What interest does a future manager in an Indian company have in mathematical modeling of the U.S. stock market? The know-how sup- posed to make a person succeed in an industrial country is not necessarily the same as what will help the development of a country that is currently poor."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Once a week, on Sundays, Hong Kong becomes a different city. Thousands of Filipina women throng into the central business district, around Statue Square, to picnic, dance, sing, gossip, and laugh. . . . They hug. They chat- ter. They smile. Humanity could stage no greater display of happiness. This stands in stark contrast to the other six days of the week. Then it is the Chinese, famously cranky and often rude, and expatriate businessmen, permanently stressed, who control the center. On these days, the Filipinas are mostly holed up in the 154,000 households across the territory where they work as "domestic helpers" or amahs in Cantonese. There they suf- fer not only the loneliness of separation from their own families, but often virtual slavery under their Chinese or expatriate masters. Hence a mystery: those who should be Hong Kong's most miserable are, by all appearances, its happiest. . . ."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Fertility rites are known from virtually all human civilizations since pre- history; they survive to the present day, such as in wedding ceremonies and in sanctuaries devoted to prayers for pregnancy. In Judaism and most of Islam, circumcision of the male organ is a condition for being admitted to the religious community. In Hinduism, the architecture of temples models the lingam and yoni (phallus and vulva). Chinese philosophy and religious practices give strong importance to the complementarity of yang and yin, the male and female element."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"In hindsight, the 2008 financial crisis could have been predicted from our 1998 business goals study. Subsequent to the crisis, national govern- ments stepped in, trying at considerable cost to repair the damage by rebal- ancing the interests of society, wage earners, and clients with those of shareholders. In the present financial reshuffling, top leaders from other parts of the world such as the European Union, China, India, and Brazil play an increasingly important role. Whoever owns the resources sets the goals, so global business objectives will very likely shift in the direction of their values."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Peter Smith's analysis of the Trompenaars database produced two major dimensions. Both were correlated with IDV; the second one was also, and even more, correlated with PDI.12 However, the correlation with PDI was influenced by the fact that there were no Eastern European, high-PDI countries in the IBM sample. In fact, the second dimension opposed most Eastern European countries to East Asian countries, and the question- naire items involved focused mainly on teamwork, which received positive associations in China and negative associations in most Eastern European countries."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Figure 9.2 explains a number of national characteristics known from the professional and anecdotal literature about organizations; these are especially clear in the preferred coordination mechanisms. Mutual adjustment fits the market model of organizations and the stress on ad hoc negotiation in the Anglo countries. Standardization of skills explains the traditional emphasis in countries such as Germany and Switzerland on the professional qualification of workers and the high status in these countries of apprentice systems. Standardization of work processes fits the French concept of bureaucracy.20 Direct supervision corresponds to Chinese organizations, including those outside mainland China, which emphasize coordination through personal intervention of the owner and his relatives. Standardization of outputs is very much the preferred philosophy in the United States, even in cases in which outputs are difficult to assess."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Chapter 5 cited a survey by the Japanese market research company Wacoal, asking young working women in eight Asian cities about traits preferred in husbands versus steady boyfriends. The trait that differentiated most between high- and low-LTO countries was affection. In high-LTO cultures affection was associated with the husband, in low-LTO countries with the boyfriend. In the section of the Wacoal study dealing with gender stereotypes, the trait that differentiated most between high- and low-LTO countries was humility. In the high-LTO cultures humility was considered a general human virtue; in low-LTO countries humility was seen as feminine. As a Chinese student in one of Geert's classes wrote, "Without a sense of humility we become worse than an animal." He saw humility as the conse- quence of "having a sense of shame."11 We will come back to this topic."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"A phenomenon that affects the functioning of the state, and sometimes also of private organizations, is corruption. Official and unofficial side payments occur in many situations throughout the world. What is called corruption is partly a matter of definition. We speak of corruption when people use the power of their positions to illegally enrich themselves, or when citizens buy the collaboration of authorities for their private purposes. But what about the large sums spent in some countries on lobbying, which, although formally legal, rests on similar motives? What about the excessive levels of self-compensation and golden handshakes at executive levels in some companies and industries? In Japan, China, and many other cultures, the giving of gifts is an important ritual, and the borderline between gift giv- ing and bribing is diffuse. To a purist, even tipping can be considered a form of bribing. 222 DI M E N SION S OF NAT IONA L C U LT U R E S"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"ans, Chinese or Japanese. Each culture has its own characteristic manner of locomotion, sitting, standing, reclining, and gestur-"-- Edward T. Hall, "Beyond Culture"

"blacks,!8 are a message, a plea, a scream of anguish and anger for the larger society to do something. In China (an HC cul- ture), the Red Guard riots apparently had an entirely different significance. They were promulgated from the top of the social order, not the bottom. They were also a communication from top to bottom: first, to produce a show of strength by Mao T'se- tung; second, to give pause to the opposition and shake things up at the middle levels--a way of mobilizing society, not de- stroying it. Chinese friends with whom I have spoken about these riots took them much less seriously than I did. I was, of course, looking at them from the point of view of one reared in a low-context culture, where such riots can have disastrous effects on the society at large."-- Edward T. Hall, "Beyond Culture"

"Educational systems regardless of country or culture have often been exported as complete packages in the past--the French in Syria, Lebanon, and Indo-China, and the Japanese in the mandated territories of the Pacific. Once established and functioning, these systems have proved to be extraordinarily sta- ble and difficult to change. If possible, they are even more re- sistant to change (in any but superficial ways) than farmers in traditional societies, usually thought to be the most persistent and resisting group in the world. It is this basic inertial stability"-- Edward T. Hall, "Beyond Culture"

"life. While complex, multi-institutional cultures (those that are technologically advanced) might be thought of as inevitably LC, this is not always true. China, the possessor of a great and complex culture, is on the high-context end of the scale."-- Edward T. Hall, "Beyond Culture"

"doing things. To argue that each culture is not unique is one of the irrationalities discussed in the chapters to follow. Europe is relatively calm now. But what about China and its neighbor Japan? Any Westerner who was raised outside the Far East and claims he really understands and can communicate with either the Chinese or the Japanese is deluding himself.1 On the hon- zon are the multiple cultures of Africa and the emerging na- tions of Latin America demanding to be recognized in their own right. The future depends on man's transcending the limits of individual cultures. To do so, however, he must first recognize and accept the multiple hidden dimensions of the"-- Edward T. Hall, "Beyond Culture"

"extension transference, 24 Bureau of Reclamation, 20 characteristic body movements Cambodia, 6, 131 Camouflage. See Context (NVC), 64-65, 71 Capote, Truman, commitment to action chain, 130--- memory for words, 159, 226 n 31 China, 2, 79-80, 82, 111, 198 vs. Spanish-American action chain Chinese, 63, 64, 80, 142-43, 188, 219 n, in disputes, 137-41 2221 intellectual's view of Spanish- Code. See Context American culture, 194 Commitment. See Action chain Courting behavior, 132-34 vs. Spanish-American style of lo- Courts. See Law Covert culture. See Cultural unconscious comotion, 218n Designers. See Architecture Spanish-American subculture, 38, Dewey, John, 126, 220n Dissociation, 69, 120, 127 134, 194, 218n spoken language used for syncing, defined, 204-5 and identification, 205-9, 230n 67-68 Eidetic memory. See Senses and Mem- and white education, 184 reinforcement of parental bonds, ory"-- Edward T. Hall, "Beyond Culture"

"I used to see these processes at work in the U. S. State Depart- ment whenever there was an attempt to get at the reality of another political/cultural system. The careers of distinguished men like John Stewart Service (who knew China so well) ran"-- Edward T. Hall, "Beyond Culture"

"7- The linguist Noam Chomsky (1968) and his followers have tried to deal with the contexting feature of language by eliminating context and going to so-called "deep structure." The results are interesting but end up evading the main issues of communication and to an even greater extent stress ideas at the expense of what is actually going on. For further information on Chinese, see Wang (1973). Bemstein (1964) Eiseley (1969)"-- Edward T. Hall, "Beyond Culture"

"culture, according to anthropologist Francis Hsu? and others, because the bonds between people are so strong there is a tend- ency to allow for considerable bending of the system. When the explosion comes, it is likely to come without warning. When the boundaries are overstepped, they must be overstepped so far that there is no turning back. It is sheer folly to get seriously in- volved with HC cultures unless one is really contexted. This is the danger that the West faces in its dealings with the East, particularly in view of our State Department's head-in-the-sand attitude toward Chinese culture."-- Edward T. Hall, "Beyond Culture"

""playmate." There are places and times for play-such as recreation rooms in houses and recreation areas in parks- as well as a vast amusement industry which keeps flourishing. Play and learning are intimately intertwined, and it is not too difficult to demonstrate a relationship between intelli- gence and play. Some games like chess and Chinese checkers are almost entirely a function of a specific type of intellectual development. Play and the PMS of defense are also closely related; hu- mor is often used to protect or hide vulnerabilities. Another example of the close relationship between play and defense is the practice exercises and maneuvers of the military which are spoken of as "war games.""-- Edward T. Hall, "The Silent Language"

"of the law. For the law is technical and dry and supposedly blind to human emotions—a cardinal sin in this age. Darrow dressed in an old sloppy suit. He appealed to the common man—people could identify with him. He was their type, the country bumpkin who outsmarts the city slicker. Now it is obvious that in addition to knowing his law well he also knew his culture. He realized that most people do not under— stand the law but will stand up for their own formal systems and even weep over them when they see them outraged. This was Darrow’s strength, and the only time he really failed to capitalize on it was when he was called to Honolulu for the Massie case in 1932. There he faced a jury made up of members who had different formal systems. The Chinese"-- Edward T. Hall, "The Silent Language"

"kanji (composite Chinese characters) while still at school. Many of these have composite meanings like "crisis in which there is opportunity," "com- peting while cooperating," "optimism aware of pessimistic possibilities." For example, the kanji for "tension" is a diffuse composition of characters denoting "bow," "string," and "stretch." In Chapters 2 and 4 of this book we have already seen that wealth is created through reconciliation. We have to grasp that reconciliation is a diffuse not a specific process, al- though it may combine specific objectives and thereby represent a com- posite of specifics."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"ple's Republic of China have all borrowed, at least in part, from the model of Japanese catch-up communitarianism. This has proved a much better path for once-Communist countries like China than has the sudden swing to individualism, which appears to have afflicted Russia and much of east- ern Europe, sending their economies into reverse. It is a supreme irony that China's growth rate, the fastest in the history of economics, has oc- curred in a country not simply communitarian but still communist. Even in troubled Japan, Toyota production methods, for example, still lead auto- mobile manufacturing worldwide. We must accordingly confront the fact that just as competitiveness may solidify us into rival groups, so harmo- nious groups may seek to test the quality of their harmony by competing with other groups. We should not assume that cooperation is a negation of competition; it can be its secret weapon, much as team spirit motivates sporting contests (Figure 3.8)."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"In early imperial Chinese funeral rites, the ideal to be attained was one of perfect harmony, with the sequential trajectory of a single life joining synchronously with the eternal rhythm of the universe and spinning around with the cosmos itself, rejoining the heavens from which the em- peror's mandate came."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"The proportion of Indian and Chinese immigrants in this region is skewed toward senior positions, with fewer semiskilled workers propor- tionately than those found in the white population. Because so many of these immigrants run their own companies, or cluster near the top, there are few barriers to upward mobility for Chinese and Indian employees."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"between these views of time. The Chinese thought of time as a thread ( ji) joining the past to the present and stretching out into an interminable fu- ture. It was especially important to trace the line of your descent. But time was also a winding or circular track (li) where cycles of growth and decay, birth and death, springtime and autumn promised a harmony with nature and perpetual regeneration. The two concepts of ji and li operated in con- cert, like yin and yang."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"Cut to a New Year's party at the Chinese restaurant. Sheldrake has been on the phone. He finally gets rooms for Fran and himself in Atlantic City. He explains, "You can blame Baxter. He point blank refused to let me use his apartment. He walked out. Quit. Threw that big fat job back in my face. stories and cases 169"-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"Among the spectacular successes are the Chinese outside China, Indi- ans outside India, and Jews outside Israel. To be a stranger in a strange land can break you, but surprisingly it often makes you. Refugees and mi- grants travel light and must rely on what they can carry between their ears. Over 50 percent of the entrepreneurs in Ashton's The Industrial Revolution (in Great Britain) turned out to be of Nonconformist religions, many refugees from foreign persecution. At that time Nonconformists consti- tuted 5.0 percent of the population."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"In a style similar to the Quakers, Indian and Chinese entrepreneurs are network specialists. They are in touch with most members of their ethnic groups not only in California but also in Bangalore, Delhi, Hsinchu, Tai- pei, and similar areas. They have created not a "brain drain" but a brain cir- culation, spending their lives traveling between Silicon Valley and home- grown centers of technology. They are more interested in world than American citizenship. The boom in electronics in Bangalore and around Taipei is directly traceable to the California connection."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"But--and here is the surprise--with the exception of Chinese "high fliers" who have been recently influenced by American training, the transculturally competent do not necessarily put their own cultural stereotype ahead of foreign values in a logical sequence. For example, American transcultural competents 358 appendix 3"-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"We find that cultures favoring ascription and particularism, such as China, Singapore, Hong Kong, and Thailand, produce most of the family-owned com- panies, while cultures favoring universalism, such as America, the United King- dom, and northwest Europe produce most of the guided missile and incubator cultures, although Taipei and Bangalore have been successful at the intersection of family and incubator cultures."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"ness could prove a handicap. No wonder that Silicon Valley's Chinese and Indian immigrants are underrepresented in administrative positions."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"Such ascriptions are not as arbitrary as they sound. French, Japanese, and Chinese cultures take scholarship extremely seriously. The Japanese high school and the French lyce are notoriously competitive and achieve- ment-oriented, hence "examination hell." The way cultures that prefer to ascribe status reveal themselves is by bringing competitive achieving to an end relatively early in life. Once you are admitted to a grand cole or to a prestigious Japanese corporation your ability to achieve competitively has been discovered and certified. From then on you are guaranteed status in return for using your abilities to serve the corporation, its customers, and the nation at large--an academic version of noblesse oblige. "We acknowl- edge your potential brilliance, now please vindicate our faith in you.""-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"Journey to the West, sometimes called Monkey or The Monkey King, dates from China's Tang dynasty (fifth century ad). It recounts the journey of a Buddhist priest, Hsuan Tang, to India, the birthplace of Buddhism. In its written form, the story dates from 1580 and is by Wu Chengen of the Ming era. It is perhaps East Asia's most popular children's story owing to the similarity between the Monkey King's naughtiness and the need for chil- dren to grow up and accept discipline."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"thing as luck" (Figure 9.1C). Only 13 percent of Japanese and 14 percent of Chinese endorse this extraordinary statement. Finally, the statement "Get- ting a good job depends on being in the right place at the right time" (Fig- ure 9.1D) is rejected by 69 percent of Americans and 72 percent of Cana- dians but by only 44 percent and 40 percent of those in Singapore and Thailand."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"The cultures of East Asia are, as we have seen, among the more syn- chronous. The Chinese Emperor's legitimacy, his "mandate from heaven" to rule, depended crucially upon actions taken on auspicious days--tim- ing was everything. Rival rulers and warlords in China would impose their own calendars and specify the days and hours on which things should be done. Divisions of time symbolized imperial legitimacy. The Buddhist re- ligion, with its cycles of birth, death, and rebirth, relied on imperial astron- omy. The doctrine of reincarnation is synchronous time taken to its fulfill- ment. Taoism preaches a cycle of eternal return. Twelve animals represent cycles of twelve years--for example, 1998 to 2000 were the years of the tiger, the hare, and the dragon. The signs of the zodiac also symbolize cir- cular or synchronous time. The American sixties counterculture made much of the Age of Aquarius."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"But for economies trying to catch up--such as Japan, Korea, Taiwan, Singa- pore, and China--it may pay to ascribe to governments the status of a coach, en- couraging and facilitating national enterprise. The coach represents Japan or 364 appendix 4"-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"We have only to note the number of Asian students at the University of California, and that Chinese immigrants in the United Kingdom are wealthy relative to others in that society, a feat repeated in Malaysia, In- donesia, Thailand, and in most parts of the Chinese diaspora."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"We now discover who Sheldrake wants to bed. It is Miss Kubelik. They meet in their favorite haunt, a Chinese restaurant, where he succeeds in rekindling an affair that began the previous summer, by claiming to be ready to divorce his wife. Fran is both in love with him and conscious that she is being exploited. She calls his overture "music to string her along by," but goes with him to Baxter's apartment."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"A failed attempt at universalist communitarianism was the Soviet and former Warsaw Pact countries and Mao's China. Such regimes suffer from an excess of imposed order which acts to stifle economic freedoms. Being both communi- tarian and universalist made these cultures coercive and dictatorial. Their peo- ple were unable to develop."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"Sun Tzu's Art of War takes a completely different tack. It is wise where Alexander was merely clever. The Chinese word for the strategy used by Sun Tzu is ji, for which no Western word exists. It can be translated as "Think through the whole situation.""-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"Moving with deliberation and continuity from the top right of the figure to the bottom right has rewarded China with annual economic growth rates of be- tween 7 and 14 percent for fifteen years or more. Abrupt Westernization does appendix 4 361"-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"Diffuse ways of thinking make it possible to connect ideas that in West- ern cultures are polarized. Japanese and Chinese pupils learn thousands of the dilemma 139"-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"We saw in Chapter 9 that most nations in Southeast Asia with rapid eco- nomic development are outer directed. This includes China, Japan, Singa- pore, Malaysia, Hong Kong, and Thailand (but not South Korea). These na- tions, before the recent banking crisis, were growing at over 7.0 percent per annum and are now returning to this growth rate."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"Yet certain groups have contributed disproportionately to economic de- velopment, such as the English Quakers, French Huguenots, and Chinese immigrants in Southeast Asia. Certain American ethnic groups have ex- traordinary powers to counter and transform discrimination from the wider world. Morris Rosenberg showed that among American Jewish ado- lescents, some actually had higher self-esteem in response to "remem- bered acts of rejection" by non-Jews. Their community had rallied around them, which enhanced their sense of importance. Among the population of American Jewish high school seniors, 85 percent are admitted to col- lege; among Japanese-Americans, 88 percent. Such figures are much higher than those for the white Protestant population."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"Another variable would seem to be "trust in the legal system." This is known to be low in Venezuela, Nepal, South Korea, Russia, and China. Without acceptance of national regulations it is difficult to universalize the duty to uphold the legal system. Because people can usually trust their friends, however bad the legal system, in turbulent times citizens tend to count only on friends and family."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"Competing is easy for Americans but cooperating is harder, whereas for Southeast Asian countries like Singapore, Malaysia, and China cooperat- ing is easy but competing with other teams is harder and must be learned."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"California profiles Silicon Valley's New Immigrant Entrepreneurs. The state- ment "Silicon Valley is built on ICs" refers to "Indian and Chinese immi- grants," who account for at least one-third of the engineering work force of the region's high-technology firms. Chinese and Indian engineers, who have immigrated to the United States steadily since 1970 to pursue gradu- ate degrees, are now running 25 percent of Silicon Valley's technology businesses. Immigrant-run companies accounted for $16.8 billion in sales in 1998, and created 58,282 jobs in that year alone. This constituted 17 per- cent of total sales and 14 percent of total jobs."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"selves modestly. "I'm sure you have many more deserving candidates than I," began a letter to the British author of this book from a Chinese woman seeking to do her doctorate under his supervision at Cambridge Univer- sity. On the contrary, her record was outstanding!"-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"As you age, as memories outnumber activities, the capacity for synchro- nous thinking is crucial. Can you make your life meaningful, whole, co- herent? No wonder the Chinese worship longevity and give respect to the aged. Shou-xing (or, in another manifestation, Shou-lai) is the Chinese star of longevity, with a bulging forehead that symbolizes wisdom. His mantle is covered in star constellations to reveal his oneness with the universe. He is supposed to know and to have written the time of every person's death-- but, as befits a synchronous thinker, he will juggle with the numbers in the interests of supplicants! He makes a strong contrast with Ronald Reagan, a victim of Alzheimer's disease who may have been "over the hill" while still in office. 318 sequential synchronous time"-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"The Christmas party has started. Miss Olsen, Sheldrake's secretary, gets drunk and tells Fran that there have been six girls, including Olsen, all taken to the same booth in the same Chinese restaurant and fed stories of imminent divorce. Fran is devastated and has to hear from Baxter how he is now the second youngest executive in the company."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"In Figure 9.1A executives in different nations reject the proposition that "Without the right breaks one cannot be an effective leader." The United States and Canada reject this most strongly. China and Indonesia reject this the least, with 61 percent of the Chinese agreeing that "the right breaks" are necessary. Similarly, 88 percent of Canadians, 80 percent of Americans, and 83 percent of Germans agree that "Trusting to fate never turned out well" (Figure 9.1B), but only 32 percent of Singaporeans and 49 percent of Japanese agreed with this statement. Canadians and Ameri- cans, 42 percent and 38 percent, respectively, claim "There is no such"-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"The questionnaire based on these logics has been administered to the follow- ing groups: U.S. executives with both extensive and limited experience of inter- national management at Applied Materials; Chinese "high fliers" working for a U.S. multinational corporation; trainees attending the Intercultural Communi- cations Institute summer school near Portland; 1,000 employees of Bom- bardier, the French-Canadian engineering company; and several European sam- ples. The following trends are already evident."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"The surprise here is Singapore, which sees its past and present joined but its future as discontinuous--perhaps a quantum leap forward. The United States is once again more sequential, and Hong Kong, China, and South Korea are more overlapped or synchronous."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"are a danger to the whole world. Communitarianism is used to forge such cultures into lethal fighting weapons, and their victims are numbered in the millions--in Nazi Germany, the Soviet Union, and Maoist China (Fig- ure 3.6)."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"There are many variations of this story. In Thailand, Monkey is a Lo- thario. In Japan it is a long-running soap opera, featuring a martial arts ex- pert traveling through time. In Stan Lai's Taipei national opera, "Chinese civilization" is on a gigantic operating table being poked at by global sur- geons. Will Chinese culture survive?"-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"That night at the apartment, which Sheldrake has occcupied, Fran weeps. She apologizes for not being "a million laughs," tells him of Miss Olsen's disclosures, and gives him a Christmas present, a record of music from the Chinese restaurant. At this point Sheldrake reaches the acme of specificity by giving her a hundred-dollar bill. She can buy what she likes."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"In Figure 11.5, we can also look at the sheer length of the past and the sheer extension of the future to gauge short-term versus long-term. Here we see that the United States is relatively short-term, a fact much com- plained of and noted, while Hong Kong, South Korea, China, and much of Scandinavia are longer-term. The Philippines, a client state of the United States, is extremely short-term, as is Brazil. Short-termism is at least in part a consequence of the feeling that time is racing by and that as much money as possible must be made in the least possible time. But if time is recurrent and generative, then the seeds planted now will bear fruit con- tinuously in future years. That said, the correspondence between short- termism and sequential time and long-termism and synchronous time is more complex than indicated."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"A final cultural contrast between inner and outer directedness is drama- tized by two mythical characters: Prometheus and the Monkey King. The story of Prometheus represents Western civilization, drawing its inspira- tion from Greek mythology. The Monkey King derives from Chinese civi- lization, drawing its inspiration from a famous Buddist story, Journey to the West (from China to India, where the origins of Buddhism lie)."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"America celebrates its heroes in style. After being fired by President Tru- man, General Douglas MacArthur, hero of the Pacific Campaign in World War II, returned to a snowstorm of ticker tape as he paraded down Wall Street. Although Truman blamed MacArthur for precipitating Chinese en- try into the Korean War, New Yorkers were determined to acknowledge the achievements of MacArthur's lifetime, which included the surrounding and capture of much of the North Korean army."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"Another East Asian culture based in synchronous time is Japan. New Year is the most important festival, crucial to the notion of starting afresh and being reborn. Toki ("time") denotes not an ongoing increment but a momentous occasion or auspicious moment. As if anticipating Einstein, the kanji (Chinese character) for "time" includes "space," so that time is folded like Einstein's universe. Another kanji pairs "time" with "change" to mean renewal. Indeed, kanji are word composites, synchronous in them- selves. "Pessimism" can be combined with "optimistic possibilities" to mean "pessimism aware of optimistic possibilities." "Crisis" can be paired with "opportunity" to mean "crisis in which an opportunity can be found.""-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"Following rather than innovating is lower-risk, since you know the technology you are making is viable and in demand. By using industrial banks with long-term, low-interest loans, communitarian cultures achieve a lower cost of capital and a source of lending that remains loyal and sup- portive over extended periods. Chinese and Japanese work ethics, for ex- ample, may be communal in their origins and part of a Confucian tradition and what Robert Bellah called Tokugawa Religion (1985)."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"sitive verb to do something to an object. "I really sold that customer!" The customer's account will differ substantially, and he probably does not see himself as a sales target. We tend to lock ourselves within sequential con- ceits, while the real world of subtle interaction remains unreflected in our language. The words are not the reality. The map is not the territory. It is of note that Japanese and Chinese languages are nonsequential in their structure."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"Increasing the speed and efficiency of the line is, of course, only one way of getting the product out more quickly. Another way is to create four lines, not one, all running in parallel, known as parallel processing. Instead of "winning the race" on a fixed racecourse, you cut the length of the course by three quarters and work simultaneously on the four quarter-lengths. Of course, because the four shortened lengths must be synchronized, parallel processing appeals more to synchronous cultures, especially Taiwan, Sin- gapore, Hong Kong, China, and Japan."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"Their final obstacle is in the shape of a monstrous dilemma. The Bull Devil King sits atop a blazing mountain whose flames are fed by his con- sort, the Fan Princess, who uses a huge iron fan. The Monkey King, given temporary immortality by the Lord of the Earth, another Taoist deity, seizes the iron fan and beats out the flames, thus using the same instrument for a different purpose. Then he thrusts his sword, matador-like, into the heart of the bull. The successful travelers are blessed by Rulai Buddha and carry seventy-two Sutras back to China."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"We all know the old dilemma of the chicken and the egg. Which came first? All six value dimensions investigated in this book represent similar dilemmas. Which came first--the universal rule or the exceptional event? Which is first--the family or the individual, the whole or the constituent element? There is no final answer to these dilemmas. Which is where cul- tures come in. Cultures tend to assert that to which no final answer can be given. "The resourceful individual comes first," says American culture. "The rice-growing village comes first," says Chinese culture. Wherever people are not sure about basic values, culture makes that assertion for them, and that assertion has often meant survival or destruction."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"The results of this research are interesting (Figure 1.2). Seven out of eight of the most universalist countries are Protestant and stable democ- racies: Switzerland, the United States, Canada, Sweden, Australia, the United Kingdom, and the Netherlands. Ireland is the exception, but this country was under British rule until 1921 and shares a common law tradi- tion. Catholics are, on the whole, less universalist: see the scores for Brazil, Spain, Poland, France, Mexico, Cuba, and Venezuela. Buddhist, Confu- cian, Hindu, and Shinto countries are more particularist still: see South Korea, China, Indonesia, Nepal, Japan, and Singapore."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"Using quantitative data* (information that can be expressed numerically, such as statistics) gathered from the IBM survey,* Hofstede identified four dimensions of culture. He found a fifth during the Chinese Value Survey* in collaboration with the psychologist Michael Harris Bond.* There are "two poles between which the dimension's societal norm is positioned," according to the data.6 The score,when plotted on a graph,shows the value orientation"-- Erdman, study guide to Hofstede's "Culture's Consequences"

"McSweeney also suggested that examining culture* at the national level does not work, partly because cultures can exist beyond national borders and multiple cultures can exist within borders. This is particularly problematic when nations merge because areas with different traditions are not technically part of the same country--as, for example, with the reintegration of Hong Kong into China. Complications also occur when national boarders divide cultural groups--the Kurdish people inhabit southeast Turkey, northern Iraq, and Syria, for instance.4"-- Erdman, study guide to Hofstede's "Culture's Consequences"

"Russia and the countries of the Balkans have cultures of strong uncertainty avoidance, as do Japan, Korea, Mexico, Belgium, and France. Germanic countries are very uncomfortable with uncertainty. English-speaking countries and China tend to be more uncertainty tolerant. Singapore, Jamaica, and Den-mark are very uncertainty tolerant."-- Hofstede & Pedersen, "Exploring Culture"

"Motorola University recently prepared carefully for a presentation in China. After considerable thought, the presenters entitled it "Relation- ships do not retire." The gist of the presentation was that Motorola had come to China in order to stay and help the economy to create wealth. Relationships with Chinese suppliers, subcontractors and employees would constitute a permanent commitment to building Chinese eco- nomic infrastructure and earning hard currency through exports."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Riding the Waves of Culture"

"The case of the pharmaceutical joint venture Mr. Geddy Teok, an American-Chinese (second generation) employee of a large New Jersey pharmaceutical firm, was based in Tokyo, Japan. His main aim was"-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Riding the Waves of Culture"

"of northern Europe. 71% of Japanese would not either, but in the diffuse Asian societies of China and Nepal and African societies of Nigeria and Burkina Faso the majority would. (Surprised by the Japanese score, we re-interviewed some Japanese respondents. They replied that it most probably had to do with the fact that the Japanese never paint houses, which illustrates the relativity of empirical data.) The range of differ- ences is not so steeply graded as when we looked at the basic cultural di- vides of Chapters 3 and 4, but it is nevertheless clearly a source of deep potential incomprehension."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Riding the Waves of Culture"

"What was happening here is very common. Even as we move towards the other person's perspective, they have started to move towards ours, and we pass each other invisibly like ships in the night. Remember that those Chinese who come to a presentation by a Western company may already be pro-Western and see Western views as potentially liberating. This dynamic is especially strong when a country is small and poor. When a drug salesperson from a US company meets with the minister of health from Costa Rica, the former's salary may be ten times the latter's. This kind of encounter only hardens our prejudices: "See, they all want to be like us.""-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Riding the Waves of Culture"

"On this basis a number of countries appear almost completely inter- nalized; in the USA, for instance, 82% of managers believe they control their own destinies, as do 76% of the French. Most European countries score high, in fact, though not the Russians, on whom 45 years of Communism may have had some effect. Similarly the Chinese now rank much lower than the Japanese, although in Japan as in Singapore man- agers are far less likely to believe in internal control than they are in North America or Europe."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Riding the Waves of Culture"

"Figure 10.1 shows the percentage of respondents who chose A, that is, the inner directors. No country produces a totally internalized reaction to this statement; the highest score is only 68%, but we see considerable variations between countries and, again, no marked pattern by continent. Only 19% of Japanese believe it is worth trying to control the weather, as few as 22% of Chinese, only 21% of Swedes but 36% of the British. The British, Germans and Americans are above the middle of the range, but by no means among the top scorers. If the alternatives are made to ap- pear more personally related, however, we get a different result. Figure 10.2 shows the percentage of respondents who chose A when asked to choose between the following."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Riding the Waves of Culture"

"that the French all take vacations in August, on the same date. They join the Club Mediterrane in order to be together. For the French the com- munity is France and the family. They become individualists in other so- cial encounters. That the Japanese are not significantly more group oriented in their answers to this question than the French is particularly interesting; also that the Chinese score, though only slightly, as more in- dividualist than the Indians."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Riding the Waves of Culture"

"The Chinese social scientists who supplied the items for Bond’s CVS questionnaire did not pro- duce anything supporting an uncertainty avoid- ance concept. Elsewhere, studies comparing na- tive Chinese and native English speakers have shown repeatedly that English speakers are more likely to use probabilistic thinking—that is, to view the world in terms of uncertainty, to ascribe degrees of uncertainty to events, and to express these either in words or in percentages of proba- bility. Chinese speakers are more likely to express full confidence (yes or no), and they use fewer probability terms such as possibly and maybe"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"The Chinese student, if he has been initially edu- cated in his own culture, and in his own language, will have begun to use a set of cognitive processes which give him a “fix” on the world of a very dis- tinctive kind. . . . It is possible to see some ratio- nale for the noticeable tendency of Chinese to ex- cel in certain subjects, particularly the applied sciences, where “the individual and the concrete” is paramount, and for their tendency not to move naturally into the abstract realms of philosophy and sociology; operations research yes, organiza- tion theory no. (p. 197)"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Bond’s Chinese Value Survey again produced four country-level dimensions. Three were signif- icantly correlated with three of the IBM dimen- sions, but no counterpart of uncertainty avoidance was found using the Chinese questions; instead, there was a new dimension, which Bond called “Confucian work dynamism” and which I later rebaptized “long-term orientation” and adopted as a fifth dimension (I discuss this dimension fur- ther in Chapter 7). Country scores for long-term orientation correlated with national economic growth in the past 25 years; as far as we knew, this was the first values measure ever that did so (Hofstede & Bond, 1988)."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Chinese Culture Connection. (1987). Chinese values and the search for culture-free dimensions of cul- ture. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 18, 143-174."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"28. A Chinese student spontaneously interpreted “having a sense of shame” as humility: “Without a sense of humility we become worse than an animal” (personal communication)."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"The Roman and Chinese Empires were both powerful centralized states, conditioning their populations to take orders from the center. But the"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"both cases the Chinese behavior was much more context dependent than the American behavior; the Chinese demonstrated particularism, the Americans universalism."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Paradoxically, in the other China that expelled the Kuomintang, the People’s Republic, the Cul- tural Revolution experiment can also be inter- preted as an attempt to maintain the authority of the ruler (in this case Chairman Mao) while reject- ing the authority of the rules, which were felt to suffocate the modernization of the people’s minds. The Cultural Revolution in hindsight was a disaster. What passed for modernization may in fact have been a revival of centuries-old uncon- scious fears."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"countries using the Chinese Value Survey (Chinese Cul- ture Connection, 1987). The value of “chastity in women” was at the collectivist pole of a dimension cor- related with IDV."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"The three dimensions common to the Chinese Value Survey and the IBM studies are the ones that refer to three types of expected social behav- ior: toward seniors or juniors, toward the group, and as a function of one’s gender. These represent cultural choices so fundamental to any human so- ciety that they are found regardless of whether the questions asked were designed by Eastern or by Western minds. They are truly universal human issues in the sense that all societies share the same problems, but different societies have found dif- ferent answers to these problems."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"39. Ina personal communication, a Chinese student told me: “The biggest difference between the Chinese and the Western society is that the Western society wor- ships the hero and the Chinese worship the saint. If one is good in doing one thing, one can be a hero. To be a saint, you have to be good in everything.”"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"A very different moral stance is found in China. For Mao Zedong, individualism was evil. In his opinion, individualism and liberalism were mani- fest in the selfishness and aversion to discipline characteristic of the petty bourgeoisie. The selfish behavior that Mao condemned was not necessar- ily at the expense of others. It was sufficient to place personal interests above those of the group or simply to devote too much attention to one’s own things (Ho, 1978, pp. 395-396). Mao’s anti- individualist, pro-collectivist ethos is deeply rooted in the Chinese tradition. Collectivism does not mean a negation of the individual’s well-being or interest; it is implicitly assumed that maintain- ing the group’s well-being is the best guarantee for the individual (Ho, 1979, p. 144)."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Inthe 1980s a new cross-national study, Bond’s Chinese Value Survey, led to the addition of a fifth dimension: long-term versus short-term ori- entation. The cross-national research experience in IBM also played a vital role in a large comple- mentary research project on differences in organi- zational cultures within countries; the methodol- ogy of this project is described. The chapter closes with a summary of and reactions to the most com- mon criticisms of the approach used in the 1980 edition of Culture’s Consequences."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"NOTE: | = highest rank. LTO ranks: 1 = China; 15-16 = Bangladesh; 21 = Poland; 34 = lowest. a. Based on EMS consumer survey (see Exhibit 7.3)."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"({Lin] emphasizes that rather than cultivating logic, the Chinese have always cultivated intu- ition and “common sense.” In continuation of this, he claims the Chinese prioritize sensibility over rationality. Rationality is abstract, analytical, and idealistic with a tendency to logical extremes, whereas the spirit of common sense is more realis- tic, human, in closer contact with reality, and"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"35. Yates and Lee (1996, p. 344) found that Taiwan- ese Chinese had more trouble than Americans in gener- ating counterarguments against the correctness of their own answers. However, Japanese produced more counterarguments than Americans in this case. This may be related to the strong uncertainty avoidance I found in the Japanese culture (Chapter 4)."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Birnbaum and Wong (1985) collected satisfac- tion data among Chinese managerial employees in 20 banks in Hong Kong, as well as data on the structure of the organizations in which they worked (using “Aston” measures; see above). In this high-PDI culture they found a significant pos- itive correlation between centralization of deci- sion making in the bank and the managers’ job sat- isfaction."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"vey, the need to define Truth was not strong. The Chinese tradition does not hold laws and abstract principles in high regard."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Tse, Pan, and Au (1997) analyzed some 3,000 foreign operations in China, divided into export, licensing, joint-venture, and wholly owned opera- tions. They found a significant correlation (p < .01) between the parent country’s PDI and equity- based entry, that is, entry by joint venture or wholly owned operation. Companies from high- PDI countries entering high-PDI China sought a position based on solid equity."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"The assumption of such differences was the key argument for Bond’s Chinese Value Survey re- search project, and the results confirmed this as- sumption. The comparison of the results of the (Western) IBM and Rokeach Value Survey stud- ies versus the (Eastern) Chinese Value Survey showed that three dimensions dealing with basic human relationships were so universal that they showed up in all cases, albeit with partly different emphases. These were the equivalents of the power distance, individualism/collectivism, and masculinity/femininity dimensions in the IBM study. Both the Western studies and the Eastern study produced also a fourth dimension, but its na- ture depended on the culture of the designers of the questionnaire. With the Western-made ques- tionnaires (IBM and RVS), the dimension of un- certainty avoidance was found; with the Chinese Value Survey, another dimension was found, long-/short-term orientation."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"The top five positions in Exhibit 7.1 are taken by East Asian countries: China, Hong Kong, Tai- wan, Japan, and South Korea. Singapore is in ninth position. European and other Western coun- tries are mainly found in the lower half of the scale, but other non-Western countries in Africa and Asia (Zimbabwe, Philippines, Nigeria, and Pakistan) occupy the bottom end. So this dimen- sion does not oppose East to West; it splits the world along new lines."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Luo (1999, p. 519) surveyed 96 foreign-based enterprises in China and found the cultural dis- tance between the partners (according to the"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"References to “the East” in the preceding pages have been mainly about China, the overseas Chi- nese, Korea, and Japan; but Hindu India also scored fairly high on LTO (61). What has been written above about the relativity of truth applies to Hinduism as well. In previous work, I have de-"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Redding (1990) divided the sources of effi- ciency and failure of overseas Chinese businesses into vertical cooperation, horizontal cooperation, control, and adaptiveness. About vertical cooper- ation, Redding states:"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"112. Pan (1996) analyzed data from more than 4,000 foreign joint ventures in China between 1979 and 1992 and found that culturally distant partners preferred a 50% equity share, whereas culturally more similar part-"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"those in countries to the left scored more individu- alist. We notice that the three Chinese countries of Singapore, Hong Kong, and Taiwan are located well to the right side of the regression line: Their respondents scored less individualist than the countries’ wealth would warrant, which is in agreement with the ren philosophy referred to earlier."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"This remarkable mix of two systems is formally the basis of the government structure of China’s dissident province of Taiwan, which has inherited Sun’s ideas through the Kuomintang party. It stresses the authority of the president (large power distance): The legislative and judicial pow- ers that in the West are meant to guarantee govern- ment by law are made dependent on the ruler and are paralleled by the examination and control powers, which are based on government of man (weak uncertainty avoidance). It is the family model, with the ruler as the country’s father; whatever structure there is in this model is based on personal relationships."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"15. Across the 11 countries for which IBM indexes were also available—that is, excluding China—the first correlation of question 232 was with 1990 GNP/capita (positively, so wealthier countries more thrifty!), but as Exhibit 7.2 shows, even without the extreme score of China there was still a strong second-order contribution of LTO. I have also tested the effect of standardizing the scores across the 11 items in the block, but this did not noticeably affect the correlations."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"9. This observation comes from a personal commu- nication that I had with a Chinese student."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"A productive research partnership developed in the 1980s between Michael Harris Bond of the Chinese University of Hong Kong and myself. We had met in December 1980 at a cross-cultural psychology conference, where I served as a dis- cussant for a joint paper Bond presented (Ngetal., 1982). I had argued that the paper contained a “re- verse ecological fallacy” (see Chapter 1), and to my surprise Bond afterward came to me and agreed. When he then reanalyzed his data at the country level, he found them to reflect all of my"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Pan, Y. (1996). Influences on foreign equity ownership level in joint ventures in China. Journal of Interna- tional Business Studies, 27, 1-26."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Confucius’s teachings are lessons in practical ethics without any religious content. “The early Chinese sages . . . were men of extraordinary in- sight. Realizing that religion was an alienation of the individual from his essence, they began the process of replacing it with pure ethics. People had to rely upon themselves, not some external force, to maintain their humanity” (Liang Shu- ming, 1893-1988, quoted in Alitto, 1986, p. 179). Confucianism is not a religion but a set of prag- matic rules for daily life derived from what Con- fucius saw as the lessons of Chinese history; it is “a secular social theory, the foremost principle of which is to achieve a harmonious society” (King & Bond, 1985, p. 30). The following are key prin- ciples of Confucian teaching:"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Rosenthal, D. A., & Feldman, S. S. (1992). The nature and stability of ethnic identity in Chinese youth: Effects of length of residence in two cultural con- texts. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 23, 214-227."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Redding, S. G., & Ng, M. (1982). The role of “face” in the organizational perceptions of Chinese manag- ers. Organization Studies, 3, 201-219."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"In various studies, Michael Bond compared an- swers on values questionnaires administered to Hong Kong Chinese bilingual students in Chi- nese versus English. In some cases when using English the students gave more traditionally “Chinese” answers (“ethnic affirmation”; see Yang & Bond, 1980). In some cases the reverse occurred, with answers in English reflecting less"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"low” (Benedict, 1946/1974, p. 82). Labor unions were weak and company oriented in all five coun- tries (a Chinese explained to me that a combative labor union would never be successful, because it would violate the norm of harmony in society), and a relatively egalitarian income distribution meant that support for revolutionary social changes was weak.4? The Confucian norm of moderation affected political life as well, in spite of occasional outbreaks of unrest and violence."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"69. Ralston, Cunniff, and Gustafson (1995) com- pared answers to the Schwartz Values Survey by Hong Kong Chinese managers, half of whom answered in Chi- nese and half of whom answered in English, with an- swers by American managers in the United States. Hong Kong Chinese managers answered more like the Ameri- cans when using English: They showed cross-cultural accommodation."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"The new dimension, discriminating among the answers of students from 23 countries who com- pleted the Chinese Value Survey, was composed of the following values. On the long-term orienta- tion pole:"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"103. Luo (1999) has stressed the role of time-based experience in foreign-invested enterprises in China."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"A difference in inheritance laws such as that be- tween Germanic and Latin Europe also existed be- tween Japan and China (Hsu, 1971, p. 38). One- son inheritance in Japan supported the faster rate of modernization through the energy of the youn- ger sons, who had to find other activities, and it helps to explain the relatively lower PDI score of Japan (54) versus other East Asian countries."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"3. Virtuous behavior toward others consists of not treating others as one would not like to be treated oneself (the Chinese Golden Rule is negatively phrased!). There is a basic hu- man benevolence toward others, but it does not go as far as the Christian injunction to love one’s enemies. Confucius is reputed to have said that if one should love one’s ene- mies, what would remain for one’s friends?"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Spencer-Oatey (1997) reported on a compara- tive survey study of students and their tutors in Great Britain (low PDI) and China (high PDI) about their mutual relationships. Chinese respon- dents (students and tutors) described the relation- ship as both closer and more unequal than did the British respondents. Several of the Chinese re- spondents compared the teacher-student relation- ship to a father-son relationship."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"11. Parsons (1951, pp. 182 ff.) developed a 2 x 2 classification of “principal types of social structure,” in which he put China, Latin America, Germany, and the United States in the four cells. Parsons’s dimension that corresponds to PDI is “universalistic” (low PDI) versus “particularistic” (high PDI); the dimension that corre- sponds to UAI is “achievement” (low UAI) versus “as- cription” (high UAI). In Chapter 5, the universalistic/ particularistic distinction was associated more with in- dividualism, but for the four countries that Parsons con- sidered, PDI and IDV cannot be separated. Chapter 4 showed the relationship between low UAI and achieve- ment motivation."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Kong Ze (Confucius), whose ideas about in- equality I have mentioned in Chapter 3, was an in- tellectual of humble origins in China around 500 B.C. He rather unsuccessfully sought to serve var- ious local rulers in the divided China of his day. He did, however, gain a reputation for wit and wisdom, and in his later life was surrounded by a host of disciples who recorded what we know about his teachings.’ Confucius thus held a posi- tion rather similar to that held in ancient Greece by Socrates, who was his virtual contemporary (Socrates lived 80 years later)."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"The non-Christian high-UAI countries include Japan (UAI 92), which from a religious point of view may seem surprising, although a Chinese writer has argued that “it is not generally realized how much more important religion and religious affiliation are to the Japanese than to the Chinese” (Hsu, 1971, p. 40). Japanese Zen Buddhism is stricter than other forms of Buddhism. Korea (UAI 85) is unique as an East Asian country in be- ing half Buddhist and half Christian, although only one-third of Korean Christians are Catholics. Religion is very much an issue in Korea. The high- UAI side also contains the Muslim countries of Turkey and Pakistan, and the Arab speakers, but not those from East Asia; Iran is in the middle, but Israel is again high (UAI 81). Islam and Judaism together with Christianity are the world’s revela- tion religions; they have common roots, and both"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"1. Bond (1986, p. 273) demonstrated this for a group of U.S. exchange students in Hong Kong who were interacting with Hong Kong Chinese students. For an exhaustive review of the subject of intergroup rela- tions across cultures, see Gudykunst and Bond (1997)."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"O’Connor, N. G. (1995). The influence of organiza- tional culture on the usefulness of budget partici- pation by Singaporean-Chinese managers. Ac- counting, Organizations and Society, 20, 383-403."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Bond published factor scores on this dimension for his first 22 countries; these varied from —1.00 for Pakistan to .91 for Hong Kong (see Chinese Culture Connection, 1987, tab. 3). These factor scores were brought into a 0-100 range by a linear transformation.!° The data for China came in after the scale had been fixed, and they put China out- side the range, at LTO = 118, which is not unrea- sonable for Confucius’s home country. The fig- ures, of course, represent relative positions of countries, not absolutes. The LTO scores are listed in Exhibit 7.1."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Redding, S. G. (1980a). Cognition as an aspect of cul- ture and its reaction to management processes: An exploratory view of the Chinese case. Journal of Management Studies, 17, 127-148."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"2. See the extensive literature of the 1980s on Jap- anese management (e.g., Pascale & Athos, 1981) and the more recent literature on China (e.g., Shenkar & Von Glinow, 1994)."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"An American teacher at the foreign-language institute in Beijing exclaimed in class, “You lovely girls, I love you!” Her students, according to a Chinese observer, were terrified. An Italian professor teaching in the United States com- plained bitterly about the fact that students were asked to evaluate his course formally. He did not think that students should be the judges of the quality of a professor. An Indian lecturer at an Af- rican university saw a student arrive 6 weeks late"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"A U.S.-Hong Kong team of researchers led by Ralston collected answers to the CVS from about 300 middle-level managers in different organiza- tions in China, Hong Kong, and the United States.!? Their LTO scores again placed China on top, Hong Kong in the middle, and the United States last."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"People in East and Southeast Asian countries place less value on “cognitive consistency.” 38 Also, it has been shown that in comparison with North Americans, Chinese view “disagreement” as less face-threatening to personal relationships than “injury” or “disappointment” (Gao, Ting- Toomey, & Gudykunst, 1996, p. 293). A different opinion does not affect their egos so much."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"41. The “hard work” argument may apply in the case of Singapore eighth graders, who were at the top in both math and science. According to Wu (1980), Singapore Chinese children were (are?) taught that industriousness is good and play is bad. Caplan, Choy, and Whitmore (1992) reviewed the academic achievement of Vietnam- ese “boat people” refugees in the U.S. school system. They were found to work very hard, and they did well overall, but again exceptionally well in mathematics."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Spencer-Oatey, H. (1997). Unequal relationships in high and low power distance societies: A compara- tive study of tutor-student role relations in Britain and China. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 28, 284-302."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Another concept bred in the collectivist family is face. Losing face, in the sense of being humili- ated, is an expression that penetrated into the En- glish language from the Chinese; English had no equivalent for it. “Face is lost when the individ- ual, either through his action or that of people closely related to him, fails to meet essential re- quirements placed upon him by virtue of the so- cial position he occupies” (Ho, 1976, p. 867). The Chinese also speak of “giving someone face,” in the sense of honor or prestige. Basically, face de- scribes the proper relationship with one’s social environment, which is as essential to a person (and that person’s family) as the front part of his or her head. The importance of face is the conse- quence of living in a society that is very conscious of social contexts. The languages of other collec- tivist cultures have words with more or less simi- lar meanings. In Greece, for example, there is the word philotimo:"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Parsons (1951, pp. 182 ff.) used variables 3 and 4 above (universalism/particularism and ascrip- tion/achievement) to create a fourfold taxonomy of countries in which he placed China, Germany, Latin America, and the United States. In a later publication, Parsons (1977, p. 14) suggested that the evolution of societies replaces particularism with universalism and ascription with achieve- ment. This would mean that evolution will even- tually push all societies to join the United States in the universalist/achievement corner of Parsons’s taxonomy. However, Parsons was less outspoken about the relationship between evolution and the other pattern variables, and acknowledged that throughout evolution, cultural systems might continue to differ (pp. 235, 237)."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"In 1981, Bond and I met again, and as we talked about cultural relativity, we wondered to what ex- tent our own minds were preprogrammed by our cultures. Bond then conceived the Chinese Value Survey project: Recognizing that the results of surveys designed by Westerners are biased by their designers’ Western minds, he asked his Chi- nese colleagues to compose a questionnaire with a deliberate Chinese mental bias and then adminis- tered this survey around the world in Asian and non-Asian countries (Chinese Culture Connec- tion, 1987)."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"2. We were not the only ones to worry. Adler, Campbell, and Laurent (1989) expressed similar doubts after having administered Laurent’s management ques- tionnaire to more than 100 Chinese managers: “Whereas this research study was originally designed to advance our understanding of Chinese managerial behavior, it in fact led us to new understandings of the ways in which we must question the research process itself” (p. 72)."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"two differed in an important respect. The Roman Empire developed a unique system of codified laws that in principle applied to all people with citizen status regardless of origin. The Chinese Empire never knew this concept of law. The main continuous principle of Chinese administration has been described as “government by man,” in contrast to the Roman idea of “government by law.” Chinese judges were supposed to be guided by broad general principles such as those formu- lated by Confucius around 500 B.C. (see Chapter 7). As Michael Harris Bond has noted, “In Chi- nese cultures, rule is by the rulers; in Western cul- tures, rule is by the rules, created by the ruled to protect them from the rulers” (personal communi- cation)."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"33. Willems and Cottaar (1989) studied views about the majority culture among minorities in the Neth- erlands. Lack of respect was mentioned by Moluccans (from Eastern Indonesia), Chinese, and Turks."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Ina third article, Earley (1994) reported on ex- periments with approaches to management train- ing, either individual focused or group focused. Data were collected in a laboratory experiment in China, Hong Kong, and the United States and ina 6-month field experiment in China and the United States. Earley argued that training affects a per- son’s “self-efficacy” (Bandura, 1986), the level"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"The contrast between the two intellectual tradi- tions explains the fact that IBM employees from countries with a Roman inheritance scored much higher on UAI than their colleagues from coun- tries with a Chinese inheritance. It is another pow- erful illustration of the profound historical roots of national culture differences."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"33. “Ihavea feeling that if I have to tell my son about all the virtues and so on it becomes hypocritical. Soa lot of these are implied, and a matter of leading by example” (from an interview with an overseas Chinese entrepre- neur by Redding, 1990, p. 187)."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"On uncertainty avoidance we again find the countries with Romance languages together. These heirs of the Roman Empire all scored on the high-UAI side. However, unlike in the case of PDI the countries with Roman and those with Chinese heritage were not together on UAI. The Chinese- speaking countries Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Sin- gapore scored much lower on UAI than the Latin countries, as did countries with important minori- ties of Chinese origin: Thailand, Indonesia, the Philippines, and Malaysia."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"pregnancy.'!5 In Judaism and most of Islam, cir- cumcision of the male organ is a condition for being admitted to the religious community. In Hinduism, the architecture of temples models the lingam and yoni (phallus and vulva). Chinese phi- losophy and religious practices give strong im- portance to the complementarity of yang and yin, the male and female elements."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Through their different logics East and West followed different paths in developing govern- ment and in developing science and technology. Whereas the Romans spread the principle of “gov- ernment by law,” the main continuous principle of Chinese administration has been “government by man” (see also Chapter 4). “Throughout history, Westerners have been ruled by one external alien force or another—by God through priests or by the state through law. .. . As aconsequence bonds do not exist among people except in legal form” (Liang Shu-ming, 1934, quoted in Alitto, 1986, p. 179)."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Intercultural contact does not automatically breed mutual understanding. Rather, it confirms the groups involved in their own identities and prejudices. From the viewpoint of one group, members of another are not perceived as individu- als but in a stereotyped fashion: All Chinese look alike; all Dutch are stingy. The concept of stereo- types was discussed in Chapter 1; stereotypes are at best half-truths, but they are unavoidable and should be taken into account. Unfounded stereo- types can affect people’s perceptions of actual events: If a member of one’s group attacks amem- ber of another group, one may be convinced (“I saw it with my own eyes”) that events happened the other way around. On the other hand, if groups seek constructive interaction, even unfounded stereotypes may be helpful in getting communica- tion started.!"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"One IBM dimension was missing in the CVS re- sults. None of the CVS factors correlated with un- certainty avoidance. In Chapter 4, this dimension was associated with, among other things, human- kind’s search for Truth. It seems that for the Chi- nese minds that composed the Chinese Value Sur-"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"traditional “Chineseness” (“cross-cultural accom- modation”). The more important the value was for the respondent, the more strongly the individual would show ethnic affirmation rather than cross- cultural accommodation (Bond & Yang, 1982). When asked to answer “like a typical Hong Kong Chinese” or “like a typical Westerner,” the re- spondents differentiated more between the two when answering in Chinese than when answering in English (Bond, 1983). Bond confirmed that the language evokes a reference group: In Chinese, bilinguals answer more as if communicating with other Chinese."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Individualist societies not only practice indi- vidualism, they also consider it superior to other forms of mental software. Most Americans feel that individualism is good, and at the root of their country’s greatness. On the other hand, as I have argued above, the late Chairman Mao Zedong of China identified individualism as evil. He found individualism and liberalism responsible for self- ishness and aversion to discipline; they led people to place their personal interests above those of the group, or simply to devote too much attention to their own things. The IBM project produced no data for the People’s Republic of China, but the countries with predominantly Chinese popula- tions all scored very low on IDV (Hong Kong 25, Singapore 20, Taiwan 17)."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"(Lau & Ranyard, 1999).35 This confirms that the notion of uncertainty and the need to avoid it are more present in a Western cognitive frame than in an Eastern one. Such a notion will reward short- term thinking, as the long term is very uncertain anyway; this supports the finding of lower LTO scores in non-Chinese countries."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"the British IBM scores. Georgas, Berry, Shaw, Chris- takopoulou, and Mylonas (1996) found that family val- ues of Greeks in Canada, Germany, and the Netherlands depended more on age than on generation and host coun- try, just as in Greece itself. Rosenthal and Feldman (1992) compared first- and second-generation Chinese in Australia and the United States and found an erosion of ethnic identification but no increase in individualism. Lalonde and Cameron (1993), however, found shifts to- ward mainstream values for students in Canada from four ethnic groups compared to their parents: blacks from the Caribbean, Chinese, Greeks, and Italians."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"subject matter with fellow students. Biggs also re- fers to studies reporting that Asian more than Western cultures attribute success to effort and failure to lack of effort, rather than to ability. Chapter 4 reported on a study of attributions by Yan and Gaier (1994) with 358 students at a U.S. university, classified as Chinese, Southeast Asian, Japanese, Korean, and American. After standardizing their data, I found that indeed the Asian students attributed success more to effort, and failure to lack of it, than the U.S. students did. So the Asians were likely to put in more effort.“°"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"The same global brand may appeal to different cultural themes in different countries. Uniform international advertising campaigns can have unpredicted local impacts. The nature and use of the product also play a role. Zhang and Gelb (1996) tested the appeal of an individualist and a collectivist advertisement on 80 students each in China and in the United States, for two prod- ucts, cameras (socially visible) and toothbrushes (privately used). For the socially visible product, matching of the appeal to the culture (collectiv- ist in China, individualist in the United States) had a very strong positive effect. For the pri- vately used product, such matching had only a weak effect. !28"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"The religious-ideological-political conse- quences of individualism merit further study. In- dividualism reminds us of the “Protestant ethic” of Max Weber, but as Exhibit 4.21 shows, the Catholic/Protestant ratio in wealthy countries was unrelated to IDV (but related to UAI and MAS); we are dealing with a “modernist ethic” rather than a “traditionalist ethic.” The Chinese ren phi- losophy of man described earlier in this chapter (Hsu, 1971) is the best formulation of the low- IDV sentiment I have found so far; the American worship of the independent actor in Whyte’s (1956) Organization Man is the best formulation of the high-IDV sentiment."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"The difference between the Hindu and the Chi- nese culture countries is that Hinduism is more spiritual: Its aim is to attain a detached attitude to- ward life. “The archetypal Westerner resolves the contradiction between the Will’s demand for shel- ter and the environmental obstacle of a dilapi- dated house by completely demolishing the house and building a new one. The Chinese will repair the old house, and the Indian will attempt to extin- guish the desire for housing” (Alitto, 1986, p. 83, after Liang Shu-ming’s Eastern and Western Cul- tures, 1922). But like other people of the East, most Indians have kept matter and spirit inte- grated. Even more than the Chinese, however, the Indians have been better able to show their prag- matic side when living overseas than at home.*?"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"On the low-UAI side, aside from the mixed Catholic-Protestant and the Protestant countries, appear Buddhist countries (Singapore and Hong Kong; Thailand and Taiwan are in the middle) and Hindu India. The Eastern religions are less con- cerned with the absolute and generally more toler- ant; certainties are not imposed from the outside but may arrive through meditation. The Chinese have been described as showing an “exceedingly relativistic sense of morality” (Inkeles & Levinson, 1954/1969, pp. 481-482). The low- UAI side also includes the East Asian Muslim countries Malaysia and Indonesia; Islam in Java, the dominant heart of Indonesia, is strongly im- printed by a tolerant form of mysticism (Geertz, 1968; Mulder, 1978), and Malaysian Islam varies by state but is generally fairly tolerant too. Finally, on the low-UAI side we find both East and West African countries, with their broad mix- ture of traditional and modern religious practices."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"The relationship between the individual and the group that has been established in a child’s con- sciousness during his or her early years in the fam- ily is further developed and reinforced at school.*> This is very visible in classroom behavior. Tobin, Wu, and Davidson (1989) produced both a book and a video about a day in the life of a preschool for 3- to 4-year-olds, one each in China, Japan, and Hawaii (United States). Teachers in Hawaii (individualist) dealt mainly with individual chil- dren; teachers in Japan (moderately collectivist) and China (strongly collectivist) dealt with the children as a group, but in Japan more individual initiatives from children were tolerated and even expected.5®"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Motivation is a construct; it is an assumed force explaining behaviors. Culture enters the motiva- tion picture in the behaviors themselves that differ and in the explanations for behaviors that differ as well, even where behaviors are the same. In ex- plaining why she puts in extra effort on her job, an American may note the money she receives, a French person may mention her honor, a Chinese person may point to mutual obligations, and a Dane may mention collegiality. Different as- sumptions about motivation contributed to the limits of the validity of U.S.-based “agency the- ory” signaled earlier in this chapter."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"The Western concern with Truth is supported by an axiom in Western logic that a statement ex- cludes its opposite: If “A” is true, “non-A,” which is the opposite of A, must be false. Eastern logic does not have such an axiom. If A is true, non-A may also be true, and together they produce a wis- dom that is superior to either A or non-A. This is sometimes called the complementarity of yang and yin, using two Chinese characters that express the male and the female elements present in all as- pects of reality (see also Chapter 6). Human truth in this philosophical approach is always partial. Worm (1997) cites a 1936 book titled My Country and My People, by the Chinese author Lin Yutang:"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"With no convincing systematic causes, only historical events can explain why different soci- eties have developed such different ways of cop- ing with uncertainty. Historical influences on power distance differences were explored in Chapter 3. The grouping of countries suggested that the roots of the differences go back as far as the Roman Empire, 2,000 years ago. In East Asia it assumed roots in the even older Chinese Em- pire. Both empires left legacies of large power dis- tances."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"The feeling that there are basic differences in thinking between “East” and “West” has been ex- pressed ever since these parts of the world first came into contact. Definitions of East and West have not always been very clear, and our present findings imply that one should be prepared to dis- tinguish among Asian countries and among West- ern countries as well. In Western eyes, the Chi- nese in particular were deemed inscrutable; in Chinese eyes, Europeans were foreign devils. Be- fore Michael Bond orchestrated his CVS, Gordon Redding (1980a), also in Hong Kong, had stressed the importance of differences in cognition: “That there are fairly large-scale differences in cogni- tive processes is often a matter of surprise to Westerners viewing Oriental people and vice versa” (p. 131). Redding went on to divide forms of cognition into causation, probability, time, self, and morality. All of these are in some way re- lated to differences on the LTO scale."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Intercultural problems arise also because expa- triate teachers bring irrelevant materials with them. A Zairean friend, studying in Brussels, re- called how at primary school in Lubumbashi her teacher, a Belgian nun, made the children recite in their history lesson, Nos ancétres, les Gaulois (our ancestors, the Gauls). A British lecturer re- peated his organizational behavior course word for word during a visiting teaching assignment in China. Much of what students from poor countries learn at universities in rich countries is hardly rel- evant in their home-country situations. What is the interest for a future manager in an Indian com- pany of mathematical modeling of the U.S. stock market? The know-how supposed to make a per- son succeed in an industrial country is not neces- sarily the same as the know-how needed to de- velop a poor country."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"In a selection from Confucius’s Analects, we read: “The second time Duke Ching called Confu- cius to an audience, he again asked him ‘What is the secret of good government?’ Confucius re- plied ‘Good government consists in being sparing with resources’ ” (in Kelen, 1971/1983, p. 44). Among Western societies, the Netherlands scored relatively highest on LTO; the Dutch have been teased by other Europeans for their stinginess and have been called “the Chinese of Europe.”"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"dividual; rather, he or she is a member of a family. Children should learn to restrain themselves, to overcome their individuality so as to maintain harmony in the family (if only on the surface; one’s thoughts remain free). Harmony is found in the maintenance of everybody’s face, in the sense of dignity, self-respect, and prestige. The importance of face in the collectivist family and society has been described in Chapter 5. Losing one’s dignity in the Chinese tradition is equivalent to losing one’s eyes, nose, and mouth. Social relations should be conducted in such a way that everybody’s face is main- tained. Demonstrating respect to someone is called “giving face.”"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Greece. What roles do the state and/or religious bodies play? In some countries (France, Russia) the government prescribes the curriculum in great detail; in others, teachers are free to define their own. In countries where both private and public schools exist, the private sector may be for the elites (United States) or for the dropouts (Nether- lands, Switzerland). Where does the money for the schools come from? How well are teachers paid and what is their social status? In China, teachers are traditionally highly respected, but poorly paid. In Britain, the status of teachers has traditionally been low; in Germany, high."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Yet the argument that Asian students simply work harder is insufficient, because then they should do as well in science as in math, which as we have seen is not the case.*! The strong correla- tions between math performance and LTO sug- gest that aside from motivation and commitment, cognitive processes play a role: There is some- thing common in the mental programming domi- nant in the high-LTO cultures and in the mental requirement for performing well in basic mathe- matics. Chinese children in the United States also performed well in space conceptualization and reasoning tests; more in general, they were good at solving well-defined problems in which goals were explicitly stated—that is, formal rather than open problems.‘? Basic mathematics belongs to this same category, more than basic science.3"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Exhibit 7.4 lists seven WVS questions that across these 11 countries were more strongly cor- related with LTO than with the other indexes, tak- ing national wealth into account. One block of 11 questions dealt with “qualities which children can be encouraged to learn at home” (questions 226- 236); respondents were asked to choose up to five qualities that they considered to be especially im- portant. The proportions choosing “thrift” (ques- tion 232) varied from 8% in Nigeria to 56% in China, with a worldwide mean of 36%. Exhibit 7.4 shows that these percentages correlated strongly with LTO (r = .70**), which validates both measures in view of the different respondent populations, different ways of asking, and differ- ent time periods.'5 In the same block the propor- tions choosing “tolerance and respect for other"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"81. All five countries had high MAS scores in the IBM data; in this case the United States was the least masculine country in the set. The overall mean correla- tion between manager and men was r= .71*** in the an- swers of male students and r = .67*** in the answers of female students. The overall mean correlation between manager and women was r =—.00 in the answers of male students. For female students the correlation coeffi- cients r between manager and women were as follows: Japan, —.04; Germany, .19*; China, .28**; Great Brit- ain, .31**; and United States, .43***."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"77. McGrath, Macmillan, and Scheinberg (1992) compared survey data about values and beliefs about en- trepreneurship, collected from entrepreneurs and career professionals in eight countries, but they reported only on significant differences between the two categories, not between countries. They tried to associate these dif- ferences with my four IBM dimensions, but the purpose and success of this association are unclear to me. In an- other paper, McGrath, Macmillan, Yang, and Tsai (1992) compared entrepreneurs from China, Taiwan, and the United States and found that the two Chinese cultures contrasted most with the United States on ques- tions opposing the collective to the individual—which is not surprising given that I found that IDV is the di- mension on which the United States differed by far the most from the others."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"A strong work ethic in high-LTO countries was evident from the answers to a block of six ques- tions asking, “How important are the following in your life?” Worldwide, the order of importance produced was as follows: family (83% very im- portant), work, friends, leisure, religion, and, fi- nally, politics (12% very important). For the item “leisure time” the relative importance across the overlapping countries was most strongly, nega- tively, correlated with LTO (r = —.51*); it was rated very important by 68% in Nigeria and by 14% in China.'® The other questions in Exhibit 7.4 will be discussed later in this chapter."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"pita and IDV, the arrow of causality was shown to point from wealth to individualist values. In the case of LTO, however, the fact that the correlation (across all 23 countries) with future economic growth (EGF 85-95) was stronger than with past economic growth (EGP 65-85) speaks in favor of an arrow of causation from LTO values to growth. Across the 11 wealthier countries only, the corre- lation with EGP was stronger, but it can be argued that these countries were hitting a ceiling. The na- ture of the values involved supports their being a cause rather than an effect. The Chinese and Japa- nese were known to value thrift and perseverance before their boom started; their adherence to tra- dition was weakened by the historical events of World War II and the period thereafter."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"An ecological factor analysis produced six fac- tors. I correlated the country scores on these fac- tors with the four IBM dimensions, 1997 GNP/ca- pita, and LTO, the latter across 10 countries for which data were available. The first factor had its most significant correlation with IDV,** the sec- ond with LTO, the fourth with PDI, the fifth with MAS, and the sixth with UAI. This perfect repli- cation of the existing model did not mean that the interpretation of the relationship of the new items to the existing dimensions was always obvious; we met a similar situation for the Chinese Value Survey. The fourth factor correlated with none of the existing indexes; it opposed French-speaking to English-speaking African countries, at least partly because of translation errors between the two versions of the questionnaire. It was no seri-"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"This synthetic way of thinking surprisingly goes together with proficiency in basic mathemat- ics, in spite of the fact that at first sight mathemat- ics seems to call for analytic rather than synthetic skills. Basic mathematics poses well-defined problems in which goals are explicitly stated. High-LTO cultures prove to be well equipped for solving such well-defined problems; low-LTO cultures seem to try more heuristic approaches, even where problems can be basically structured. Redding (1980b) notes: “It is a common question why an active tradition of scientific investigation failed to develop in China in the way it did in the West? The most appealing explanations for it cen-"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"The IBM dimension at the masculine pole stresses the assertive, materialistic, performance-oriented side of this value complex. The CVS again shows that there are other virtues associated with mascu- linity. Courtesy reminds us of the chivalrous ide- als of the Western medieval knights. Patience and kindness we would rather expect at the feminine pole, but we are dealing with “values as the desir- able,” or abstract virtues; the IBM work goals questions on which the mas/fem dimension is based asks for “values as the desired,” or personal objectives. The desirable and the desired in this case seem to compensate for each other. Chinese philosophers have always stressed that the mascu- line (yang) and the feminine (yin) elements in life are intertwined; the CVS dimension human- heartedness seems to support this postulate of Taoism. The feminine pole in the CVS stresses subordination to higher purpose: patriotism and righteousness."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"hundreds of journal articles refer to it. The dimen- sion provides psychologists with a paradigm implying that traditional psychology is not a uni- versal science: It is a product of Western thinking, caught in individualist assumptions. When these are replaced by more collectivist assumptions, an- other psychology emerges that differs in impor- tant respects. For example, individualist psychol- ogy is universalist, opposing the “ego” to any “other.” In collectivist psychology the ego is in- separable from its social context; I earlier cited Hsu’s (1971) argument that the Western concept of a “personality” separate from its environment does not exist in the Chinese tradition. Collectiv- ist society is particularist: The crucial distinction is between the in-group (which includes the ego)"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"The distinction of in-group versus out-group, previously described in Chapter 1, is a central aspect of cultural collectivism. The correlation between exclusionism and IDV is strong but not perfect. A comparison of the rankings of forty-one countries from the IBM database on indi- vidualism and on exclusionism finds six countries that score considerably more universalist than could be predicted on the basis of their IDV scores: Colombia, Venezuela, Peru, Slovenia, Finland, and Sweden. Their cultures according to their WVS data are more open to out-group members than expected. Five other countries score much more exclusionist than their IDV scores predict: India, Italy, Turkey, Iran, and the Philippines. Their cultures are more hostile to out-group members than expected."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"The World Values Survey addresses both aspects of SWB by asking people how satisfied they are with their lives and how happy they feel. Nations that score high on the first of these two questions usually score high on the second as well, but the correlation is not very strong. National differences in life satisfaction can be explained convincingly by means of differences in national wealth, but this variable has relatively little to do with the happiness item in the WVS. The countries with the highest per- centages of very happy respondents are typically poor or not particularly wealthy. They are located in western Africa (Nigeria, Ghana) and in north- ern Latin America (Mexico, El Salvador, Colombia, Venezuela). What are we to make of this? Light or Dark? 279"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Since the end of World War II, Korea has been split in two parts. North Korea has become the devastatingly poor com-munist Democratic People’s Republic of Korea. South Korea has become a comparatively rich capitalist state and has a U.S."-- Hofstede & Pedersen, "Exploring Culture"

"It can safely be assumed that the members of the North Korean delegation at Frankfurt have made it clear in their own way that they did not appreciate the safety measures. With sufficient training, the security people might have been aware of the possibility for misunderstanding, found out who these people were, and treated them with more cultural sensitivity."-- Hofstede & Pedersen, "Exploring Culture"

"Jerome Don gave his Korean colleagues three years to get their act to- gether. By doing so he intuitively ascribed status to the Korean organiza- tion. This gave the Koreans the trust they needed because they were feeling that they were respected for who they were based on their years at BE. This made them work even harder. From ascribed status comes achievement."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Riding the Waves of Culture"

"Netherlands, Korea, Germany, Austria and Sweden are being developed. The Culture Compass also allows users to place the general cultural in- formation within the context of their own organization."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Riding the Waves of Culture"

"ness” among students; countries covered were South Korea (IDV 18), Japan (IDV 46), and the United States (IDV 91). Gudykunst and his col- leagues divided self-consciousness into public self-consciousness, private self-consciousness, and social anxiety; the last was shown in Chapter 4 to be related to UAI. They hypothesized a rela- tionship between public self-consciousness and the IBM individualism dimension. Public self- consciousness was measured by six questions; a typical item was “I’m concerned about what other people think of me.” U.S. respondents scored highest (most self-conscious) on this subscale, but Japanese respondents did not score higher than South Koreans; in fact, the Japanese scored somewhat lower. Still, a relationship between cul- tural individualism and public self-consciousness (presenting oneself as an individual) makes conceptual sense. Private self-consciousness might be related to MAS; we will return to it in Chapter 6."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"people” (question 231) varied from 55% in South Korea to 91% in Sweden, with a worldwide mean of 70%. These percentages were negatively corre- lated with LTO (r =-.58*). Tolerance and respect for other people have lower priority in long-term orientation cultures."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"The question Duke Ching put before Confucius 2,500 years ago is still as topical as ever: What is good government? In 19992000 social scientists from East Asia (China, Japan, and South Korea) and from Nordic Europe (Denmark, Finland, and Sweden) in a joint project surveyed rep- resentative samples of the populations of their countries about the same issue. The survey showed differences in opinions about how the relation- ship between rulers and citizens should be, reflecting the countries' differ- Yesterday, Now, or Later? 275"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Poverty, however, did not disappear. From 1970 to 2000 some countries were extremely successful in moving from "rags to riches." The absolute winners were the five Dragons: Taiwan, South Korea, Singapore, Hong Kong, and Japan--this in spite of a serious economic crisis in their region in 1997. In U.S. dollars, Taiwan's 2000 GNI per capita was thirty-six times as high as its 1970 GNI per capita. Japan's nominal GNI per capita increased by a factor of eighteen. On the other hand, the GNIs per capita of the countries of sub-Saharan Africa and Latin America rose insignificantly or not at all."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Table 7.1 lists index scores on the new dimension for the twenty-three countries that participated in the CVS. The top positions are occupied by China6 and other East Asian countries. (Japan, Hong Kong, Taiwan, South Korea, and Singapore were known in the last decades of the twentieth century as the "Five Dragons" because of their fast economic growth.) Continental European countries occupied a middle range. Great Britain and its Anglo partners Australia, New Zealand, the United States, and Canada scored on the short-term side. The African countries Zimbabwe and Nigeria scored very short-term, as did the Philippines and Pakistan."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"In Figure 4.1 we find societies with a large traditional rural sector mostly at the collectivist side and modern industrial societies at the indi- vidualist side. There are some exceptions, especially in East Asia, where Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Singapore have retained considerable collectivism in spite of industrialization."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"In the literature the distinction between country-level masculinity and femininity is easily confused with the distinction between individualism and collectivism. Authors from the United States tend to classify feminine goals as collectivist, whereas a student from Korea in her master's thesis classified masculine goals as collectivist."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"people usually suffer losses," "Old people are usually stubborn and biased," and "People will stop working after they secure a comfortable life." It also reflects a view that powerful people are arrogant exploiters of less powerful individuals. According to the available data, societal cynicism is strongest in Eastern Europe, East Asia (Korea, Taiwan), Pakistan, and Thailand. It is weakest in Norway, the United States, and Canada. Societal cynicism is significantly and negatively correlated with IVR.25 This suggests that members of less indulgent and more restrained societies tend to have a more cynical outlook. Societal restriction not only makes people less happy but also seems to foster various forms of negativism. Cynicism is only one of them. Other forms will be discussed in the following sections."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"The economic success of the Dragons had not been predicted by econ- omists. (Even after it happened, some failed for a time to recognize it.) A forecast for the region by prominent World Bank economists in the American Economic Review in 196664 did not even include Hong Kong and Singapore, because they were considered insignificant; it underrated the performances of Taiwan and South Korea and overrated those of India and Sri Lanka. Fifteen years later Singapore, with a population of 2.5 million, exported more than India with its 700 million."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Anxious cultures tend to be expressive cultures. They are the places where people talk with their hands and where it is socially acceptable to raise one's voice, to show one's emotions, and to pound the table. Japan may seem to be an exception in this respect; as with other Asians, the Japanese generally behave unemotionally in Western eyes. In Japan, however, and to some extent also in Korea and Taiwan, there is the outlet of getting drunk among colleagues after working hours. During these parties men release their pent-up aggression, even toward superiors, but the next day business continues as usual. Such drinking bouts represent one of the major institu- tionalized places and times for anxiety release."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"TIMSS (Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study) is an international comparative test of mathematics and science performance administered every four years in now more than fifty countries among all continents. Its latest round, at the time of this writing, was in 2007. Par- ticipants are fourth-grade students (age about ten) and/or eighth-grade students (age about fourteen). Consistently, the East Asian students (those from Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Japan) outperform all other students, especially in mathematics. The lowest-achieving nations are found in Africa, the Middle East, and Latin America."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"ries, and the fact that American leadership has to emerge informally for each new situation. When the Communists saw American prisoners going to one man with their prob- lems or to get advice, they would suspect a conspiracy. The Communists would then remove this potential leader of the group and send him away. As a result, group support, sanctions, and controls failed to develop. The Turks fighting in Korea fared much better. They simply told the Com- munists who their leader was and made it clear that, in the event of his removal, the next in line would be leader, and so on down to the lowliest private. This meant that there was always a replacement for any leader the Com- munists removed. The Turk organization remained intact."-- Edward T. Hall, "The Silent Language"

"example of this occurred during World War II. Since the Japanese cultural system ignored the contingency that Japanese troops might be taken alive, it provided no in- struction for its soldiers as to how they should behave as prisoners. The result was that most POWs had no sense of ·military security, freely responded to interrogation, and co- operated with their captors to a degree which Europeans consider traitorous. In Korea, the American military as- sumed that U.S. prisoners would act properly even without . specific training on how to behave under the stress of cap- ture. Reports from the Korean War on the behavior of"-- Edward T. Hall, "The Silent Language"

"Samsung had had our book translated into Korean at their own expense. It was sent to us with their original letter as a gift. Inquiries revealed that the translation was of the highest quality. Had we commissioned our own translation, the cost would have been $18,000, with very real difficulty in guaranteeing quality work."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"Singapore, Japan, Hong Kong, Malaysia, and South Korea. These feature a higher degree of particularism, originating from Confucian family values and higher degrees of communitarianism. What stops the communitarianism from becoming totalitarian is the particularity of each family and each person."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"But for economies trying to catch up--such as Japan, Korea, Taiwan, Singa- pore, and China--it may pay to ascribe to governments the status of a coach, en- couraging and facilitating national enterprise. The coach represents Japan or 364 appendix 4"-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"The solution we arrived at was to first pay our respects to South Korean particularism. We thanked them warmly for the translation and expressed delight that Samsung's executives found the book valuable. We then asked their advice on how to locate a good Korean commercial publisher. Within two weeks we had three offers. Within a month we had a legal contract that protected our copyright. The fact that Samsung commended the book and had commissioned the translation was displayed on the cover. Sales in Ko- rea have been brisk. Royalties have been received. The value of royalties 48 universalism particularism"-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"This case actually happened to the TrompenaarsHampden-Turner Group in its dealings with Samsung, the South Korean chaebol (a family of businesses). We received a very friendly letter thanking Dr. Trompenaars for a previously published book of ours and conveying the "good news" that it had been translated and widely used by Samsung executives, who had found it most enlightening. There was only one problem: the copy- right was ours. We had given no permission for translation or publication in Korea. The advice of our original British publisher who owned the trans- stories and cases 47"-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"Another variable would seem to be "trust in the legal system." This is known to be low in Venezuela, Nepal, South Korea, Russia, and China. Without acceptance of national regulations it is difficult to universalize the duty to uphold the legal system. Because people can usually trust their friends, however bad the legal system, in turbulent times citizens tend to count only on friends and family."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"In contrast to the adversarial sound-bite culture is the principle of w, or harmony (see Figure 9.9). Cultures like Singapore, Malaysia, Japan, and Korea celebrate the harmonious interaction of yin and yang in the Tai-Chi, the Taoist symbol of the supreme ultimate. For the Japanese, Ameratsu, the sun god, shines his light on living nature and makes all things grow eco- logically, especially his own worshippers."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"Indeed, prominent people expect to be waited upon. Seniority means that subordinates wait upon their superiors' whim and convenience. At a meeting in South Korea, the British author of this book entered punctually and sat down. He was bidden by a flustered official to wait outside, as the Figure 11.9 the dilemma 313"-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"We considered, and quickly dismissed, the idea that Samsung did not understand international copyright law or had signed it for reasons of sub- terfuge. We knew that South Korea was one of the most particularist cul- tures we had surveyed. Might it be, therefore, that they thought a particular and warm relationship should precede the exercise of legal rights?"-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"Taken together, the two scales reveal only a narrow majority for specificity in the United Kingdom and the United States and strong ma- jorities for diffuseness in France, South Korea, Japan, and so forth. Which style one chooses may depend on the circumstances one faces and the function within the corporation one represents."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"We saw in Chapter 9 that most nations in Southeast Asia with rapid eco- nomic development are outer directed. This includes China, Japan, Singa- pore, Malaysia, Hong Kong, and Thailand (but not South Korea). These na- tions, before the recent banking crisis, were growing at over 7.0 percent per annum and are now returning to this growth rate."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"The surprise here is Singapore, which sees its past and present joined but its future as discontinuous--perhaps a quantum leap forward. The United States is once again more sequential, and Hong Kong, China, and South Korea are more overlapped or synchronous."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"The scores are presented in Figure 7.2. We see that Americans opt for achieved status by six to four, and Australia by fifty-five to forty-five. The United Kingdom is divided evenly, and much of the rest of the world prefers ascription. Korea is 76 percent ascriptive, Japan 70 percent, France 65 percent, and Singapore 60 percent. None of this means that achieve- ments are necessarily neglected. It means that across cultures, individuals first decide what is important before going on to try and achieve it, and whether or not they succeed is less important than their initial decision about "who they are.""-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"While specificity focuses on the product, diffuseness considers the en- tire process by which the product is conceived, designed, developed, man- ufactured, distributed, and maintained. While America leads the world in product innovation, Japan, Singapore, Korea, and other East Asian cul- tures may imitate Western products but originate new processes of mak- ing these. By reengineering, by omitting several manufacturing steps, and by parallel processing, the "same" product can be produced in less time and at far lower cost. Fixing the process rather than the product may gen- erate superior results."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"In Figure 11.5, we can also look at the sheer length of the past and the sheer extension of the future to gauge short-term versus long-term. Here we see that the United States is relatively short-term, a fact much com- plained of and noted, while Hong Kong, South Korea, China, and much of Scandinavia are longer-term. The Philippines, a client state of the United States, is extremely short-term, as is Brazil. Short-termism is at least in part a consequence of the feeling that time is racing by and that as much money as possible must be made in the least possible time. But if time is recurrent and generative, then the seeds planted now will bear fruit con- tinuously in future years. That said, the correspondence between short- termism and sequential time and long-termism and synchronous time is more complex than indicated."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"America celebrates its heroes in style. After being fired by President Tru- man, General Douglas MacArthur, hero of the Pacific Campaign in World War II, returned to a snowstorm of ticker tape as he paraded down Wall Street. Although Truman blamed MacArthur for precipitating Chinese en- try into the Korean War, New Yorkers were determined to acknowledge the achievements of MacArthur's lifetime, which included the surrounding and capture of much of the North Korean army."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"To those not used to it, synchronous cultures are chronically distracting. Everyone seems to demand your attention at the same moment. No one seems willing to wait. Noise levels during religious services strike many Westerners as extraordinary. Noise at night makes it almost impossible to sleep. If you are engaged in a task and see a friend, you may seriously in- jure his feelings unless you lay aside the task to greet him. A South Korean former student returning to visit his American professor was insulted when the teacher continued to speak in turn with a line of students at his desk and did not break off to greet an old friend who had just entered the classroom. Although he had studied in the United States, he still found himself surprised at this behavior."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"That said, industry can resist. The most famous case is the Japanese au- tomobile industry's refusal to merge despite MITI's advice that its units were too small and too many. At their best, coach governments are popular (as is a coach in football), are seen as the friend and facilitator of economic development, and are able to encourage the provision of low-cost finance, trained labor, crucial contracts, and help in export drives. Typical coach governments include Singapore, Japan, Korea, and, under socialist gov- ernments, France. In most cultures both varieties are included. For exam- ple, Scottish Enterprise has a coaching role, as have most development agencies."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"It occurred to us, in addition, that we might compromise. We could tell Samsung that it had broken the copyright convention but that we were pre- pared to make a deal. We would agree not to sue, for payment of a negoti- ated fee, representing all or part of the rights to which we were entitled. But we felt that this would "irritate everyone," our publisher included. We would almost certainly lose Samsung's goodwill, and if they were angry with us they would spread the word. Future commercial publication in South Korea might prove elusive."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"The results of this research are interesting (Figure 1.2). Seven out of eight of the most universalist countries are Protestant and stable democ- racies: Switzerland, the United States, Canada, Sweden, Australia, the United Kingdom, and the Netherlands. Ireland is the exception, but this country was under British rule until 1921 and shares a common law tradi- tion. Catholics are, on the whole, less universalist: see the scores for Brazil, Spain, Poland, France, Mexico, Cuba, and Venezuela. Buddhist, Confu- cian, Hindu, and Shinto countries are more particularist still: see South Korea, China, Indonesia, Nepal, Japan, and Singapore."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"Russia and the countries of the Balkans have cultures of strong uncertainty avoidance, as do Japan, Korea, Mexico, Belgium, and France. Germanic countries are very uncomfortable with uncertainty. English-speaking countries and China tend to be more uncertainty tolerant. Singapore, Jamaica, and Den-mark are very uncertainty tolerant."-- Hofstede & Pedersen, "Exploring Culture"

"military presence. Until the year 2000, these twin countries waged a fierce ideological battle against one another. The government of the United States sided with South Korea and had North Korea on its list of seven terrorist nations, the so-called “rogue states,” because of incidents that had happened in the 1970s and 1980s. In 2000 the two Koreas started to talk about reconciliation or even reunification. This, then, is the background for the following incident."-- Hofstede & Pedersen, "Exploring Culture"

"So you see that it is possible to explain the behavior of both sides in terms of their own way of thinking and come up with two widely different interpretations. Do you think either the American airline’s officials or the North Korean delegation members learned anything from the incident? The Americans probably feel that the North Koreans are blowing this thing up ridiculously, while the North Koreans are now quite certain that Americans are savages. The media on both sides are likely not to have corrected this image."-- Hofstede & Pedersen, "Exploring Culture"

"What happened at the airport was a very clear case of culture clash. Experienced travelers know that U.S. security personnel at airports tend to be heavy-handed regardless of whom they deal with. That fits with the American culture. They may not have been particularly polite to the North Korean delegation. In addition Americans hold the view that everybody is his or her own person, and one cannot hold the government responsible for the behavior of employees of some company as long as they stick to the rules. The North Koreans, on the other hand, come from a country where respect for authority is very important. Moreover, an insult to one North Korean is an insult to all. Looked at from this vantage point, the beleaguered security officials didn’t just search a few strangers, they insulted a whole nation! This is evident in the emotional and nationalistic overtones of the North Korean reaction."-- Hofstede & Pedersen, "Exploring Culture"

"they are both unique individuals and share a common culture with their fellow countrymen and –women. People from collectivist cultures may make the opposite error: they attribute behavior of individuals to a group intention. We saw this happen in The Frankfurt Incident, where the collectivist North Koreans thought that the United States was behind the humiliat-ing treatment inflicted on their delegation, not merely some security personnel from an airline company."-- Hofstede & Pedersen, "Exploring Culture"

"When he gazed at a piece of Korean china on the third meeting, he fi- nally realized what was going on. His refusal had not been taken to mean: "let's get on with business right away," but rather: "If you want to get into business with me, you had better come up with something big- ger." How embarrassing his refusal must have been for the Korean part- ner became clear to him when he remembered a similar situation in his"-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Riding the Waves of Culture"

"Within six months BE-Korea was profitable. Quality went up and morale re- sulted in 60% lower staff turnover Mr. Don did not know exactly what hap- pened, but he had done the same in South America and now in Asia."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Riding the Waves of Culture"

"pion." A participant from Korea told us in quite a cynical tone that he ad- mired the USA for solving one of the last major problems in business, i.e., how to get rid of people in the process of reengineering. The fallacy of the "one best way" is a management fallacy which is dying a slow death."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Riding the Waves of Culture"

"Why was Jerome Don successful in Korea, while his predecessors had not been? The initial actions by the American managers were counter-productive. In the great American tradition the turnaround managers started at the top of Figure 8.3 and focused on the reward which people could get for their achievements. The Koreans became even more nervous than they had been before the intervention, because basic trust seemed to be lack- ing. They were afraid to be judged on their past performance."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Riding the Waves of Culture"

"Jerome Don was asked to come to the rescue of BE-Korea. He was known for turning companies around with great skill in both South America and Asia. He started by telling Korean managers that his predecessors were quite right in their approach: `We are on a burning platform, but | ask you to help us to save this facility because it is so important to BE. I'll give you three years to get your act together and I'll help you whenever you need me.""-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Riding the Waves of Culture"

"It was in 1985 that Belly Electronics (BE) started to manufacture in South Korea. The fast changing prices in consumer electronics had forced the San Francisco-based company to decentralize its production facilities. After some quite serious starting losses BE began to recover and late in 1989 it could re- port some promising profits. Early in 1991 margins came under pressure be- cause of Thai and Vietnamese competition. BE decided to reengineer its business processes following its major competitors in the region."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Riding the Waves of Culture"

"Figure 2.1 (page 18) shows the wide range of national responses. Only a little over a third of French, Korean or Japanese managers see a com- pany as a system rather than a social group, whereas the British and Americans are fairly evenly divided, and there is a large majority in fa- vor of the system in Russia and several countries of eastern Europe."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Riding the Waves of Culture"

"After very disappointing results a second US manager was flown in, but his similar approach made no difference. Interviews with the key Korean players were not helpful. Loss after loss was defended by: We are trying, but it is not easy in Korea. Fierce competition explains a lot. But we need to stop turnover of personnel so we can trust each other more.""-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Riding the Waves of Culture"

"Likewise, people who do only one thing at a time can, without mean- ing to, insult those who are used to doing several things. A South Korean manager explained his shock and disappointment upon returning to the Netherlands to see his boss."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Riding the Waves of Culture"

"cieties and the failure of the Communist experiment. We shall see, though, that the success of the "Five Dragons," (Japan, Hong Kong, Singapore, South Korea and Taiwan) raises serious questions about both the success and the inevitability of individualism."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Riding the Waves of Culture"

"small present. But from the expression on her face, he could easily tell that it was not quite what she had expected. Remembering this made him accept the fact that the Korean partner was simply trying to estab- lish a relationship and had no intention of bribing him. To avoid similar misunderstandings in future encounters with Korean partners, the man- ager decided to try to communicate that he, too, was interested in good relationships but that he felt no need to exchange expensive presents. (One alternative he might have come up with could have been to offer presents that were of little material value, but nevertheless signaled ap- preciation and interest.)"-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Riding the Waves of Culture"

"If you chose 2 or 3 you have expressed a belief in reconciling achieved and ascribed status. Answer 2 affirms socially ascribed status which leads to achievement and success (the Korean case was based on a simi- lar principle). Answer 3 affirms achieved status that is believed to lead to social ascription. In both cases the integrity lies in the self-fulfilling sense of self-worth. Answers 1 and 4 respectively reject achieved and ascribed"-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Riding the Waves of Culture"

"For the first time BE flew in experienced US managers from the Bay area. Their approach was consistent and had made them managers of the year in BE for similar turnaround projects in California and Massachusetts. On the basis of a continuous improvement program Korean managers were put under pres- sure to "get their act together'' Something said by the first US manager is still remembered in Seoul: `Ladies and gentlemen, we are on a burning platform. Figures tell us there is not much time left. Competitors in the region are doing much better than us; in fact comparative research shows that in terms of qual- ity our benchmark companies in California and Thailand are outperforming us by 35% on quality and 42% on quantity per worker. | therefore give you six months to get the numbers up and then to become a profit-generating com- pany. Let us show that we are a worthwhile company in BE by achievements and not just promises.""-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Riding the Waves of Culture"

"although it may be. The main sanction is loss of affection and place in the family. Pressure is moral and social rather than financial or legal. Many corporations with family-style cultures are from nations which industri- alized late: Greece, Italy, Japan, Singapore, South Korea, Spain. Where the transition from feudalism to industrialism was rapid, many feudal traditions remain."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Riding the Waves of Culture"

"An initial step towards developing respect for cultural differences is to look for situations in our own life in which we would behave like a per- son from another culture. This is what helped a member of the purchas- ing department of a big European oil company who was negotiating an order with a Korean supplier. At the first meeting, the Korean partner of- fered a silver pen to the European manager. The latter, however, politely refused the present for fear of being bribed (even though he knew about the Korean custom of giving presents). Much to our manager's surprise, the second meeting began with the offer of a stereo system. Again the manager refused, his fear of being bribed probably heightened."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Riding the Waves of Culture"

"success. In the first place, Protestant cultures are no longer growing faster than Catholic or Buddhist ones. Catholic Belgium, for example, has a slightly higher GpP per head than the more Protestant Netherlands. Catholic France and Italy have been growing faster than the UK or parts of Protestant Scandinavia. Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, Singapore and Hong Kong are influenced by Buddhism and Confucianism. It is cer- tainly not evident that Japan's habit of promoting by seniority has weighed its corporations down beneath piles of dead wood. In short, there is no evidence that either orientation belongs to a "higher" level of development, as modernization theorists used to claim."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Riding the Waves of Culture"

"A Given the pluralism of local initiatives in Europe, is it possible to exercise any strategic leadership from US headquarters which is applicable to all the units concerned? (Universalism- particularism dilemma) B Given the obvious desirability of getting our best products on to the market according to the value of their achievements, is it possible to attain this while giving the autonomous R&D for high-potential products the space they need to mature? (Achievement-ascription dilemma) C Given the need for a quick response to very swiftly changing markets in the USA, is it possible to keep ourselves committed to a long-term vision developed at our center in South Korea? (Short-term/long-term dilemma)"-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Riding the Waves of Culture"

"References to “the East” in the preceding pages have been mainly about China, the overseas Chi- nese, Korea, and Japan; but Hindu India also scored fairly high on LTO (61). What has been written above about the relativity of truth applies to Hinduism as well. In previous work, I have de-"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"The top five positions in Exhibit 7.1 are taken by East Asian countries: China, Hong Kong, Tai- wan, Japan, and South Korea. Singapore is in ninth position. European and other Western coun- tries are mainly found in the lower half of the scale, but other non-Western countries in Africa and Asia (Zimbabwe, Philippines, Nigeria, and Pakistan) occupy the bottom end. So this dimen- sion does not oppose East to West; it splits the world along new lines."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"The dendrogram in Exhibit 2.8 should be read from right to left. A split into two large clusters separates Korea through Jamaica from Denmark through Japan. The next split separates Korea through Costa Rica from Malaysia through Ja- maica, and so on."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"48. Chapters 4 and 5 also described a study in which Gudykunst, Yang, and Nishida (1987) measured self-consciousness among students in South Korea, United States, and Japan. They associated two compo- nents of self-consciousness with UAI and IDV, respec- tively. The third, “private self-consciousness” (example: “I’m constantly examining my motives”) fol- lowed the order of MAS, suggesting more private self- consciousness in more masculine cultures."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"cultures, but where PDI is high mothers advise daughters, and where it is low, daughters advise mothers. Similar conclusions have been pre- sented by Alden, Hoyer, and Lee (1993), who compared humor in TV ads in Germany, South Korea, Thailand, and the United States. Although humor was used in all four countries (with some common elements), the two Asian countries fea- tured more actors (low IDV) and more status dif- ferences between actors (high PDI). On the other hand, Cutler, Erdem, and Javalgi (1997) studied print ads from eight countries and found no rela- tionship between the picturing of multiple per- sons and IDV; !?6 they suggest this may be because these ads try to communicate to the individual reader. There was a marginal relationship be- tween the use of personalized pronouns and IDV (you for the more individualist and we for the more collectivist cultures).!27"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"associated with this latter discriminant function, but they were smaller than the country differ- ences. A plot of the scores showed that gender dif- ferences were largest for Japan, followed by United States and Australia, and very small for Korea (Kashima et al., 1995, fig. 1). These differ- ences rank correlated perfectly with MAS (rho = 1.00** across the four countries)."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"The correlation with wealth suggests that it should be useful to study wealthy and poor coun- tries separately. | divided the 50 countries at the limit of $10,000 GNP/capita for 1997, which means that all five East Asian dragons (Japan, Hong Kong, South Korea, Singapore, and Tai- wan) are included in the wealthy category. For 26 wealthy countries (left-hand side of Exhibit 3.19), wealth (1997 GNP/capita) no longer plays a role in the multiple regression pattern: The first contri- bution is by UAI, and a sizable second-order con- tribution is made by PDI. I will come back to the role of UAI in Chapter 4. The strongest of all cor- relations in Exhibit 3.19 is between CPI and Hoppe’s PDI scores (see Exhibit 3.13), r = —.86*** across 18 countries. Hoppe’s scores, as we have seen, are based on the answers on the"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"In the psychological literature, the masculinity/ femininity distinction is sometimes confused with the distinction between individualism and collec- tivism. American authors have considered femi- nine goals as an expression of collectivism; on the other hand, a Korean student sent me a master’s thesis in which she associated collectivist goals with masculinity."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"subject matter with fellow students. Biggs also re- fers to studies reporting that Asian more than Western cultures attribute success to effort and failure to lack of effort, rather than to ability. Chapter 4 reported on a study of attributions by Yan and Gaier (1994) with 358 students at a U.S. university, classified as Chinese, Southeast Asian, Japanese, Korean, and American. After standardizing their data, I found that indeed the Asian students attributed success more to effort, and failure to lack of it, than the U.S. students did. So the Asians were likely to put in more effort.“°"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"The non-Christian high-UAI countries include Japan (UAI 92), which from a religious point of view may seem surprising, although a Chinese writer has argued that “it is not generally realized how much more important religion and religious affiliation are to the Japanese than to the Chinese” (Hsu, 1971, p. 40). Japanese Zen Buddhism is stricter than other forms of Buddhism. Korea (UAI 85) is unique as an East Asian country in be- ing half Buddhist and half Christian, although only one-third of Korean Christians are Catholics. Religion is very much an issue in Korea. The high- UAI side also contains the Muslim countries of Turkey and Pakistan, and the Arab speakers, but not those from East Asia; Iran is in the middle, but Israel is again high (UAI 81). Islam and Judaism together with Christianity are the world’s revela- tion religions; they have common roots, and both"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Three other questions in the World Values Sur- vey (Exhibit 7.4, questions 206, 210, and 219) dealt with marriage and family life. The first two were part of a block of 13 questions about “things that make a marriage successful.” Respondents in high-LTO countries scored lower on the impor- tance of “living away from in-laws” (r = -.60*, answers varied from 59% very important in the Netherlands to 5% in South Korea, worldwide mean 42%); they also scored lower on the impor- tance of “tastes and interests in common” (r = —.51*, from 78% very important in Nigeria to 20% in South Korea, worldwide mean 41%). These two questions suggest that marriage in high-LTO countries is a pragmatic arrangement. The third item was “A pre-school child is likely to suffer if his or her mother works.” Respondents in higher- LTO countries tended to agree (r = .52*); agree- ment varied from 92% in India to 52% in the"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"The data in Inglehart et al.’s volume contain ex- treme scores for certain countries that could un- duly dominate the correlation pattern. Therefore only Spearman rank correlations were used for data from this source. Exhibit 4.12 contains the correlations with 17 attitude scores conceptually related to UAI. The correlations are shown for all overlapping countries (26, sometimes 25 or 24, as Switzerland and/or South Korea did not use some of the questions) and for the 19 (sometimes 18) wealthier countries only (1990 GNP/capita > U.S.$480), which included South Korea and Por- tugal with the wealthier countries but excluded four Latin American countries, India, Nigeria, and Turkey."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Hastings and Hastings (1980), in their Index to International Public Opinion 1979-1980, re- ported on a five-nation survey of the values of 10- to 15-year-old children (about 1,500 per country) and of their mothers. Among other things, the mothers were asked, “In your old age, what sort of relationship would you like to have with your children?” The answer “To live together and have my daily needs looked after” was endorsed by 2% of mothers in France and Great Britain, 21% in Ja- pan, 34% in South Korea, and 73% in Thailand. These percentages were, of course, strongly (neg- atively) correlated with IDV, r = —.84*.38"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Culture in the form of certain dominant values among the population is a necessary but not a suf- ficient condition for economic growth. Two other conditions are the existence of a market and the existence of a political context that allows devel- opment; the latter, of course, is also strongly af- fected by culture.48 The need for a market ex- plains why the growth of the East Asian economies started only after 1955, when for the first time in history the conditions for a truly global market were fulfilled. The need for a sup- portive political context was met in all five “Dragons”—Hong Kong, Japan, Korea, Singa- pore, and Taiwan—but in very different ways, with the role of government varying from active support to laissez-faire. “In all Asiatic nations, under whatever regime, authority from above al- ways reaches down and meets in some middle ground local self-management rising from be-"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Strong uncertainty avoidance leading to intolerance of deviants and minorities has at times been costly to countries. The expulsion of the Jews from Spain and Portugal by the Catholic kings after the Reconquista of the Iberian Peninsula from the Moors (1492) has deprived these countries of some of their most enterprising citizens and is believed to have contrib- uted to the decadence of the empire in the following centuries. One group of Iberian Jews settled in the Netherlands and played an important role in the seventeenth-century Dutch colonial expansion. Others went to Costa Rica, which even today is a favorable exception to Latin American person- alismo and stagnation (see Chapter 4). In more recent history the exodus of top scientists, many of them Jewish, from Hitler's Germany enabled the Americans to develop the atomic bomb."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Again an example: In Appendix 3, Exhibit A3.1, for Costa Rica (COS), the first Category 2 country, the standardized score for AS is listed as 533. We also read lower down in Exhibit A3.1 that for the 40 Category 1 countries the mean for A5 (MEA) was 602 and the standard deviation (SDC) was 43. Vertical standardization implies that the new standard score for AS for Costa Rica becomes (602 — 533)/43 = —1.60 (or -160 if we omit the decimal). All the other scores for the new coun- tries and regions were converted ina similar way."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"The opposite pattern (no strict authority but rel- ative personal dependence on the collectivity), as found in Costa Rica, Austria, and Israel, could be called independent collectivism. The unique case of Costa Rica as Latin America’s “most firmly rooted democracy” has been discussed in Chapter 3. An Austrian psychologist interpreted his coun- try’s cultural pattern as follows:"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Latin American countries in the IBM set dif- fered considerably on MAS. The small Central American countries of Costa Rica, Guatemala, Panama, and El Salvador scored feminine; Mex- ico, Venezuela, Colombia, and Ecuador scored very masculine; and Peru and Chile scored again more feminine. One speculative explanation is that these differences reflect the heritages of the different Indian civilizations dominant prior to the Spanish conquest. Most of Mexico would have inherited the tough Aztec culture, but the southern Mexican peninsula of Yucatan and the adjacent Central American republics would have inherited from the much more sensitive Maya culture. Peru and Northern Chile would reflect the Inca inheri- tance, resembling the Maya."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"The dendrogram in Exhibit 2.8 should be read from right to left. A split into two large clusters separates Korea through Jamaica from Denmark through Japan. The next split separates Korea through Costa Rica from Malaysia through Ja- maica, and so on."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"2. Although most high-PDI countries are also low-IDV countries, and vice versa, this is not always the case. The Latin European countries (in particular France and Bel- gium) combine large power distances with strong individualism; Costa Rica is collec- tivist with a relatively small power distance; Austria and Israel combine small power dis- tances with only medium individualism. Collapsing PDI and IDV into one dimension would obscure the unique value patterns of these countries."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Going back to Exhibit 3.1, we find that the countries deviating most from the predicted val- ues of PDI are 20 or more points above (Panama, +30; Belgium, +29; France, +27; Guatemala, +27, Malaysia, +26; and Yugoslavia, +23) or 20 or more points below (Israel, -34; Costa Rica, -31; Austria, -29; and Pakistan, —20)."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Chapter 3 related the Power Distance Index to the difference between balanced power and un- balanced power in political systems. Exhibit 3.18 shows that 20 countries in the PDI range showed balanced power and 21 in the upper-PDI range showed unbalanced power since 1975. There were 9 exceptions: France, Belgium, Portugal, and Greece, with higher PDI and balanced power; and Argentina, Iran, Pakistan, South Africa, and Taiwan, with lower PDI and unbalanced power. IDV is even more closely associated with bal- anced power than PDI: From the top 19 countries in Exhibit 5.1, 18 had balanced power since 1975 (all but South Africa); from the remaining 31 countries only 5 had balanced power (Japan, Tur- key, Greece, Portugal, and Costa Rica), and some of these went through political upheaval shortly before 1975."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Denmark and Waters (1977) content analyzed children’s readers in five countries (France, Ro- mania, Spain, Sweden, and the former Soviet Un- ion) for gender role models. Only the Swedish sto- ries had more female than male leading characters, and some of both in nontraditional gender roles, such as a boy as a baby-sitter. Swe- den has a long history of educational policies for training girls and boys in the same roles; it scored very feminine in the IBM data (MAS 5), but also low in power distance."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Even though most Danes are good at foreign lan- guages, we... have examples of employees with seven to nine years of schooling who. .. were un- able to communicate freely and advance beliefs on behalf of their colleagues because the foreign management fixed the agenda in their [the for- eign] language, unaware that active participation and exchange of views in a discussion . . . needs a standard of English that is so high that it is mas- tered by only very few Danish employees. We also have examples of engineers who can easily com- municate in German as long as they talk with Ger- man engineers about . . . the development of a product. But they have never learned how to dis- cuss and argue in German in order to defend their interests when cooperation problems arise be- tween a Danish and a German project group. (Gertsen & Sgderberg, 1998, p. 193)"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Using the six dimensions from the Danish-Dutch study, the research- ers showed various culture gaps among the three subcultures. The pro- The Elephant and the Stork: Organizational Cultures 365"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"The interviewer team consisted of eighteen members (Danish or Dutch), most of them with a social science training but all deliberately naive about the type of activity going on in the unit studied. Each unit's inter- views were divided between two interviewers, one woman and one man, as the gender of the interviewer might affect the observations obtained. All interviewers received the same project training beforehand, and all used the same broad checklist of open-ended questions."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Another type of reaction was found in the Nordic countries Denmark, Sweden, and, to some extent, Norway and Finland. In their case society is less built on hierarchy and rules than in the United States. The idea of "organizational cultures" in these feminine, uncertainty-tolerant countries was greeted with approval, because it tended to stress the irrational and the paradoxical. This attribute did not at all prevent a basically positive attitude toward organizations.8 346 C U LT U R E S I N ORGA N IZ ATIONS"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"In feminine cultures such as the Netherlands, Sweden, and Denmark, there is a preference for resolving conflicts by compromise and negotiation. He, She, and (S)he 167"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"of saying, "Oui, Monsieur," as he expected her to do, the Danish woman looked at him, smiled, and said, "Why do you want this to be done?""-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"A network of political scientists coordinated by Poul Erik Mouritzen, of Denmark, and James Svara, of the United States, studied local govern- ment administration in more than four thousand municipalities covering fourteen Western democracies. Among other things, they collected scores on national cultures, through survey answers by the top civil servant in each municipal administration. Their study is one of the larger replications of the IBM survey (see Table 2.1). They distinguished four ways in which Pyramids, Machines, Markets, and Families: Organizing Across Nations 307"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"A study by the development cooperation agencies of the Nordic coun- tries Denmark, Finland, Norway, and Sweden focused on the effectiveness of Nordic technical assistance personnel in eastern Africa. It criticized the priorities set by the donors: from nine hundred Nordic expatriates, two- thirds were implementers (carrying out projects themselves) while only one-fifth were trainers of local personnel or consultants in local institution building. According to the researchers, the ratio between the two catego- ries should have been reversed. This format would have sharply reduced the number of expatriates needed and changed the profile of skills required from them.43"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"A follow-up study by IRIC investigated organizational subcultures.24 In 1988 a Danish insurance company commissioned IRIC to study the cul- tures of all its departments, surveying its total population of 3,400 employ- ees. The study used the same approach as the previous Danish-Dutch project: open-ended interviews leading to the composition of a survey questionnaire."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"In the 1980s Geert was involved in a large survey study on organi- zational cultures in Denmark and the Netherlands.26 The questionnaire contained among other items a list of possible reasons for dismissal. In a feedback session in Denmark, Geert asked respondents why nobody in their company had considered "a married man having sexual relationships with a subordinate" as a valid reason for the man's dismissal. A woman stood up and said, "Either she likes it, and then there is no problem, or she doesn't like it, and then she will tell him to go to hell." There are two pertinent assumptions in this answer: (most) Danish subordinates will not hesitate to speak up to their bosses (small power distance), and (most) male Danish bosses will "go to hell" if told so by a female subordinate (femininity). 158 DI M E N S ION S OF NAT IONA L C U LT U R E S"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Scientific disputes sometimes hide cultural assumptions. A famous example is the discussion between the German physicist Albert Einstein (18791955) and his Danish colleague Niels Bohr (18851962) on whether certain processes inside the atom are governed by laws or random. "I can- not imagine God playing dice," Einstein is supposed to have said. Bohr could; recent research has proved him right, not Einstein. Denmark scores very low on uncertainty avoidance (rank 74, score 23)."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"In the feminine Scandinavian countries, people call their own attitude in this regard the Law of Jante (Janteloven). The Law of Jante, a nickname chosen for a small Danish town, was codified in the 1930s by the Danish- born Norwegian author Aksel Sandemose, and in an English translation it runs as follows:"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Most of the smaller studies compared two or three countries at a time. It would seem too idealistic to expect confirmation of the IBM results in all these cases, but a review of nineteen small replications by the Danish researcher Mikael Sndergaard found that together they did statistically confirm all four dimensions.10 The strongest confirmation was for individu- alism. Most small replications start from the United States, which in the IBM studies was the highest scorer on individualism, and any comparison with the United States is likely to show a clear individualism difference."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"The question Duke Ching put before Confucius 2,500 years ago is still as topical as ever: What is good government? In 19992000 social scientists from East Asia (China, Japan, and South Korea) and from Nordic Europe (Denmark, Finland, and Sweden) in a joint project surveyed rep- resentative samples of the populations of their countries about the same issue. The survey showed differences in opinions about how the relation- ship between rulers and citizens should be, reflecting the countries' differ- Yesterday, Now, or Later? 275"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"In Chapter 5 it was shown that the percentage of their gross national income that governments of rich countries have allocated to development cooperation varies considerably (in 2005 the United States spent 0.22 per- cent of its GNI, while Denmark, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, and Sweden each spent more than 0.7 percent) and that this percentage was strongly correlated with the rich countries' femininity scores. Develop- ment assistance money is allocated according to the (psychological) needs of the donor countries more than according to the material needs of the receivers. Intercultural Encounters 417"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"3. The committee-leader form, in which the executive functions are shared by standing committees composed of elected politicians, the political leader (with or without the title of mayor), and the top civil servant. This form was found in Denmark, Sweden, and the United Kingdom."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"The percentage of women among managers and the presence of at least one woman in the top-management team were also correlated with openness. However, this correlation was affected by the binational composition of the research population. Among developed European countries, Denmark at the time of the research had one of the highest participation rates of women in the workforce, while the Netherlands had one of the lowest. Also, as mentioned earlier, Danish units as a group (with one exception) scored more open than Dutch units. This does not necessarily exclude a causal relationship between the participation of women in the workforce and a more open communication climate: it could very well be the explanation as to why the Danish units were so much more open."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"European countries in which the native language is Romance (French, Ital- ian, Portuguese, Romanian, Spanish) scored medium to high on the power distance scale (in Table 3.1. from 50 for Italy to 90 for Romania). Euro- pean countries in which the native language is Germanic (Danish, Dutch, English, German, Norwegian, Swedish) scored low (from 11 in Austria to 40 in Luxembourg). There seems to be a relationship between language area and present-day mental software regarding power distance. The fact that a country belongs to a language area is rooted in history: Romance More Equal than Others 83"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Ingrid Tollgerdt-Andersson, from Sweden, compared more than 1,400 job advertisements for executives from eight European countries. She looked for whether the ads mentioned personal and social abilities, such as ability to cooperate. This was the case in 80 percent or more of the ads in Sweden, Denmark, and Norway but only in some 50 percent in Italy and Spain. Weak uncertainty avoidance explains most of the differences. Abil- ity to cooperate is a soft criterion considered more valid in low-UAI coun- tries. Femininity explains nearly all the remaining differences: cooperation is a more important value in feminine than in masculine cultures.48"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"As we mentioned in Chapter 4, Inglehart's overall analysis of the World Values Survey found a key dimension, well-being versus survival, that was associated with the combination of high IDV and low MAS.10 This means that the highest stress on well-being occurred in individualist, feminine societies (such as Denmark), while the highest stress on survival was found in collectivist, masculine societies (such as Mexico). We will meet this dimension from Inglehart again in Chapter 8, relating it to Misho's new dimension indulgence versus restraint."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Research results regarding national cultures and their dimensions proved to be only partly useful for the understanding of organizational cultures. The part of this book that deals with organizational culture dif- ferences (Chapter 10) is based not on the IBM studies but rather on a spe- cial research project carried out in the 1980s within twenty organizational units in Denmark and the Netherlands."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"In wealthy countries, the value choice between reward for the strong and solidarity with the weak is also reflected in the share of the national budget spent on development assistance to poor countries. The percentage of their GNI that governments of rich countries have allocated to helping poor ones varies widely. In 2005 the United States spent 0.22 percent of its GNI, while Denmark, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, and Sweden each spent more than 0.7 percent.66 The proportions spent are unrelated He, She, and (S)he 173"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"The four highest-scoring countries in Table 7.4 are still East Asian, and with three exceptions (Malaysia, Thailand, and the Philippines), all other South and Southeast Asian countries are found in the top half of the table. The top half further holds all countries from Eastern Europe, including the entire former Soviet Union, with the exception of Poland and Georgia. Finally, it includes most other European countries, except Greece, Finland, Denmark, Norway, Portugal, and Iceland."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Most of the present chapter is based on the results of a research project carried out between 1985 and 1987 under the auspices of the Institute for Research on Intercultural Cooperation (IRIC). It used the cross-national IBM studies as a model. Paradoxically, these studies had not provided direct information about IBM's corporate culture, as all units studied were from the same corporation, and there were no outside points of comparison. As a complement to the cross-national study, the IRIC study was cross- organizational: instead of one corporation in a number of countries, it cov- ered a number of different organizations in two countries, Denmark and the Netherlands."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Figure 10.1 indicates that although organizational cultures are mainly composed of practices, they do have a modest values component. The cross-organizational IRIC survey included the values questions from the cross-national IBM studies. The organizations differed somewhat on three clusters of values. The first resembled the cross-national dimension of uncertainty avoidance, although the differences showed up on other sur- vey questions than those used for computing the country UAI scores. The cross-organizational uncertainty-avoidance measure was correlated with dimension 4 (open versus closed), with weak uncertainty avoidance obvi- ously on the side of an open communication climate. The relationship was reinforced by the fact that the Danish units, with one exception, scored more open than the Dutch ones. Denmark and the Netherlands, though similar on most national culture scores, differed most on their national uncertainty avoidance scores, Denmark scoring much lower."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Finally, the use of empirical research in these areas was a new approach within the social sciences that filled a critical research void. The Danish management scholar Mikael Sndergaard's* review of 61 studies that replicated Hofstede's work shows how widely received this new model has been.7"-- Erdman, study guide to Hofstede's "Culture's Consequences"

"To show how valuable such comparisons can be,Hofstede provides several examples of replication studies--including the "alumni of the Salzburg Seminar survey" produced by Michael H. Hoppe,*7 a specialist in cross-cultural leadership, and the Values Survey Module conducted by Marieke de Mooij,*8 an expert on the influence of culture on marketing. The Danish economics and management scholar Mikael Sndergaard* conducted an analysis of 61 replication studies based on Hofstede's work and found that they supported and verified his findings.9"-- Erdman, study guide to Hofstede's "Culture's Consequences"

"organizational units in Denmark and in IRIC’s home country, the Netherlands. On the national culture dimensions from the IBM study, these two countries belonged to the same Nordic-Dutch cul- ture cluster. We attempted to cover a wide range of different work organizations, to get a feel for the size of culture differences that can be found in practice, which would, then, enable us to assess the relative weight of similarities and differences. The units studied belonged to 10 different organi- zations, 5 in Denmark and 5 in the Netherlands. These 20 units were from three broad kinds of or- ganizations: private manufacturing companies, private service companies, and public agencies. Unit sizes varied from 60 to 2,500 persons. The sample of 20 units was a small enough number to allow us to examine each unit in depth, qualita- tively, as a separate case study. At the same time, it was large enough to permit statistical analysis of comparative quantitative data across all cases."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"The share of women among the respondents varied from 15% in Denmark and the Netherlands to 31% in France and 35% in Portugal; the Euro- pean average was 22%. These percentages were also strongly correlated with IBM UAI (r = .82***, rho = .86***). This is rather surprising, and I have no ready explanation."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"41. A cross-national public opinion sample study provided anxiety data for Denmark, Finland, Norway, and Sweden (Kata, 1975; about 1,000 respondents per country). Kata and Lynn found the same rank order of anxiety scores: Sweden (lowest), Norway, Denmark, Finland (highest; for Lynn, Sweden and Norway break even). The IBM stress and UAI data also put Finland highest, but Denmark lowest."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"tries were not matched at all, these correlations did not apply to Danes in comparison to Dutch in general, only to those Danes and Dutch working in the units studied."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"77. Sondergaard (1996) has applied the two terms in a comparison between Danish and French banks in which manége stands for the French higher PDI and UAI, and ménage for the more flexible Scandinavian (Danish) approach."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"One possible explanation of the strongly femi- nine scores of the Nordic countries Denmark, Fin- land, Norway, and Sweden is that these are an in- heritance from the Viking society of the 8th to 11th centuries A.D., where the women managed the villages while the men were away on their long trips (cooperating, not competing with each other). But this begs the question why these men traveled so far and so long; it could be seen as a survival strategy of people with a cold and not- too-fertile home country."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"¢ Do you feel that you are underpaid? (from 39.8% in Spain to 7.3% in Denmark, correla- tion with PDI rho = .81**)"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"99. This correlation is affected by the binational composition of the research population: Denmark had a higher rate of women in the workforce than the Nether- lands, and Danish units also tended to score more open. Within Denmark the correlation between percentage women employees and openness was also significant; within the Netherlands it stayed below the .05 signifi- cance level."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"problem-solving approach toward the superior was used related negatively to PDI and UAI (more in Denmark, Britain, and the Netherlands than in Spain and Belgium), but whether a prob- lem-solving approach toward the colleague was used related negatively to MAS (more in the Netherlands and Denmark than in the three other countries)."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"119. I have described the results of a pancultural factor analysis of the data from the large Danish insur- ance company that followed the original IRIC study in Hofstede (1998a). In this analysis the values questions"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Integration problems may hide in unexpected places. An analysis of foreign acquisitions in Denmark found that clashes were often due to lan- guage:"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Some of the individual values and practices fac- tor scores were also correlated with nationality (Danish or Dutch), but this should not be inter- preted as an influence of the national cultures. Be- cause the organizations studied in the two coun-"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"A unique form of ownership, the cooperative, was found among 10% or more of the 100 largest corporations in Denmark, Finland, Norway, and Sweden, but also in Austria, and in 1% or less in Britain and Italy. In spite of the Austrian score, percentages were negatively correlated with MAS (r = -.77**). Cooperatives appeal to the need for cooperation in a feminine society."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Following the 20-unit study, IRIC got involved in the study of employee attitudes and organiza- tional subcultures within a Danish insurance com- pany with some 3,000 employees, all of whom were surveyed. This study allowed us to relate culture to attitudes and also to develop a method for mapping the different subcultures within one large organization. That project is also described in Chapter 8."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"3. P4 (closed system) with V1 (stronger need for security), HI (promotion on past merits), and Dutch rather than Danish nationality, which could be called a “conservation” cluster"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"At Bond’s initiative, his associate Chung- Leung Luk performed the necessary data treat- ment for an individual analysis of the Danish- Dutch IRIC data.!!9 He transformed the scores for the 1,295 individuals on the 61 practices ques- tions and the 57 values questions by deducting from each score on each question the unit mean for that question. The 61 x 1,295 transformed practices matrix and the 57 x 1,295 transformed values matrix were separately factor analyzed. !20 In both cases six factors were retained for rota- tion, together explaining 27% of the variance in practices and 31% of the variance in values. !2!"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"The dendrogram in Exhibit 2.8 should be read from right to left. A split into two large clusters separates Korea through Jamaica from Denmark through Japan. The next split separates Korea through Costa Rica from Malaysia through Ja- maica, and so on."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"The integration of national markets in the Euro- pean Union increases the number of cross-na- tional ventures among member countries. EU countries, from Denmark to Portugal, differ pri- marily along the upper-left to lower-right diago- nal in Exhibit 4.2, from small power distance, weak uncertainty avoidance to large power dis- tance, strong uncertainty avoidance; but on this diagonal the differences among them are consid- erable and about as large as could be found any- where in the world (Exhibit 9.3). Common mem- bership in the European Union is therefore no insurance against cultural problems."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Van Oudenhoven, Mechelse, and de Dreu (1998) asked 100 middle managers from five different national subsidiaries of a multinational corpora- tion (in Belgium, Denmark, Great Britain, the Netherlands, and Spain) to describe their most re- cent conflicts with a superior and with a col- league, and how these were handled. Whether a"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"96. In an attempt to focus on the organizational dif- ferences, we reran the factor analysis after shifting the scores of the Dutch units so that, on average, they equaled the Danish. Thus we artificially eliminated the country effects. We again found three factors, which could be labeled (1) work orientation (intrinsic versus extrinsic), (2) identification (with company versus with noncompany interests), and (3) ambition (concern with money and career versus family and cooperation, some- what resembling the mas/fem dimension in the cross-na- tional study). The first factor was strongly related to the unit population’s mean education level (the higher edu- cated had a more intrinsic work orientation) and the sec- ond to their age, seniority, and hierarchical level. Thus, even if we eliminated the nationality effect, value differ- ences between organizational units depended primarily on demographics and only secondarily on membership in the organization as such."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"As described in Chapter 2, data were collected in three phases: interviews, paper-and-pencil sur- vey, and company information gathering. Eigh- teen carefully trained Danish and Dutch inter-"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"62. Stohl (1993) interviewed 20 managers each from five European countries about their interpretation of “participation.” The French nearly exclusively re- ferred to formal participation; the British, Danes, Dutch, and Germans referred to both formal and infor- mal forms."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"What is missing in Etzion and Bailyn’s article is information on the family involvement and en- ergy depletion of the partners. [ have shown re- sults from a broad employee survey in an insur- ance company in Denmark (n = 2,590, 50% female; Hofstede, 1998c). Denmark, like the Netherlands, scored very feminine in the IBM study (MAS 16). Ona question regarding whether employees experienced conflicts between their work and their family lives, 21% of the women an- swered yes and so did 30% of the men, although"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"In choosing the units for the IRIC study, we necessarily had to walk rather lightly over the is- sue of cultural homogeneity. The possibility of studying this aspect in more detail presented itself in 1988 when a Danish insurance company (3,400 employees) commissioned IRIC to compare its culture(s) with those found in the earlier project. The study was combined with a periodic measure- ment of employee attitudes, which meant that, un- like in the 20 units studied before, in this company all employees were included.! Initially, Danish IRIC collaborators held 24 open-ended inter- views with a selection of informants from all lev- els and departments of the company. The survey questionnaire, designed after the interviews, in- cluded among its 120 questions the 18 (3 x 6) key questions about practices from IRIC’s organiza- tional culture study. Usable questionnaires were returned by 2,408 employees, a 71% response rate."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"One of the rare non-American collections of or- ganization theory literature is a volume of Euro- pean contributions for which I served as coeditor (Hofstede & Kassem, 1976). In it, Hjelholt (1976), who was from Denmark, argued for the importance of the organization and its external and internal boundaries as sources of collective identity for the members:"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Organizations headquartered in higher-PDI cultures have more problems functioning in lower-PDI cultures. Even between headquarters in medium-PDI United States and subsidiaries in countries with very low PDI, such as Denmark and Sweden, problems arise because U.S. top managers feel uncomfortable with what they ex- perience as a lack of respect for basic managerial prerogatives."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"2. A French duchess at the court of Louis XIV is supposed to have said to her husband: “I can produce peers of France without you—you cannot without me.” In the same vein is the following quote from a story by Isak Dinesen (1942), set in 18th-century Denmark: “The ladies . . . carried the future of the name in their laps. . . . They were .. . conscious of their value. . .. For how free they were, how powerful! Their lords might rule the country, and allow themselves many liberties, but when it came to that supreme matter of legitimacy which was the vital principle of their world, the centre of gravity lay with them” (p. 32)."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"18. Holmes and Rahe (1967) developed the Social Readjustment Rating Scale, allocating point values to stressful life events such as the death of a spouse, getting married, and losing a job. In the United States, Japan (Masuda & Holmes, 1967), Sweden, and Denmark, these authors and their associates have shown that if the sum of the point values of crucial life events within a pe- riod exceeds a certain level, the subject is highly likely to suffer physical and/or mental disorders."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"¢ Would you resign if your boss insisted that you commit a business act that you felt was unethical? (This is a loaded question that is very unlikely to get an honest answer, but the proportions of those answering that they would not resign varied from 16.3% in France to 6.3% in Denmark; correlation with PDI rho = .67*)"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"more on details and short-term feedback than did their (lower-UAI) British counterparts. Hoffman (1987) collected views about decision power from some 300 top managers in 78 manufacturing busi- ness units and divided them into Anglo (British and American), Germanic (German and Swiss), and Nordic (Danish, Norwegian, and Swedish). The Germanic cluster (higher UAI) more often mentioned rational forecasting as a source of de- cision power. On the other hand, strategic plan- ning, which avoids details, appeals less in high- UAI countries. Faucheux (1977) has argued that U.S. (low-UAI) approaches to strategic manage- ment do not apply to (high-UAI) Latin countries in general and to France in particular."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Chapter 8 focuses on the consequences of the cultural differentiation among countries for the functioning of and theorizing about organizations. It also analyzes the phenomenon of or- ganizational cultures, specific to organizations within and across countries. This part is based on a separate research project across 20 Danish and Dutch organizational units that my associ- ates and I carried out in the 1980s."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Hoppe’s data can be used to compute best esti- mates for the scores on the IBM scale, through re- gression of the IBM scores on the Salzburg scores (the fifth column in Exhibit 3.13). For 13 coun- tries the Hoppe scores are within 10 points of the IBM scores; the outliers are Austria (+32), Portugal (-23), France (-21), Belgium (-15), and Denmark (+14). The selection and self-selection criteria for elites participating in the Salzburg seminars may have differed by country; there was also an amount of co-optation, past participants recommending (the courses to) future partici- pants with similar values. The Hoppe study pro- vided an estimated PDI score for Malta (MAT): 56."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Another comparative study content analyzed more than 1,400 job advertisements for execu- tives in eight European countries (Tollgerdt- Andersson, 1996).54 The author classified the ex- tent to which the ads stated required personal and social abilities, such as the ability to cooperate; this varied from 85% of cases in Sweden (and 80% in both Denmark and Norway) to 53% in Italy and 52% in Spain. I did a correlation and regression analysis on the percentages she published, against the four IBM indexes plus 1990 GNP/capita, and found low UAI (r =-.86**) to be the strongest re- lated zero-order variable and low MAS to make a significant second-order contribution (R = .95***, R? = 90). Ability to cooperate is a soft cri- terion that was considered more valid in low-UAI, low-MAS cultures."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"The checklist used for the in-depth interviews was based on a survey of the literature on the ways in which organizational cultures are supposed to manifest themselves and on our own ideas. We classified manifestations of culture into the four categories mentioned in Chapter 1: symbols, heroes, rituals, and values. The interview team consisted of 18 members (Danish or Dutch), most of them with social science training but deliber- ately naive about the type of activity going on in the unit studied. Each unit’s interviews were di- vided among 2 interviewers, a woman and a man, so that the gender of the interviewer would not af- fect the observations obtained. All interviewers"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"The second part of the chapter deals not with national but with organizational cultures—that is, the differences in collective mental program- ming found among people from different organi- zations, or parts thereof, within the same national context. Organizational cultures were the object of a separate study, the 1985-86 IRIC project, cov- ering 20 organizational units in Denmark and the Netherlands. Whereas national cultures differed primarily in their values, organizational cultures turned out to differ mainly in their practices. A major part of the differences among the 20 units could be explained by six factors representing six independent dimensions of perceived practices. These related to established concepts from orga- nizational sociology and management theory."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Przeworski and Teune (1970, pp. 31 ff.), writ- ing from a political science background, were mainly concerned with the distinction between cell 1 and cell 4 studies. They normatively sug- gested for cell 1 studies a “most different systems design”: If we want to prove universality of mi- cro-level laws, it is more meaningful to test them in Sweden, Japan, and Zambia than in Sweden, Denmark, and Norway. For cell 4 studies they suggested a “most similar systems design”: Taking societies that are similar in many respects except a few, which enables us to see more clearly the differences to which those few societal as- pects are related. If we are interested in which so- cietal influences affect suicide rates, it is mean- ingful to study Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, which are similar in many respects but of which the last has a suicide rate strikingly lower than the other two (Rotterstgl, 1975)."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"80. The study originally tried to find sufficient units in the Netherlands only. As selling the project to managements turned out to be quite difficult (they had to allow outsiders in who would ask their employees tricky questions, and on top of this the organizations had to pay for participating), we gladly accepted an offer by a Dan- ish consultant, Connector, to find a number of additional partners in Denmark."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Avoidance Index, the statistical analysis (Exhibit 4.18) shows that it made sense to divide the “bal- anced power” countries into “old” and “young” democracies. The young democracies (which de- veloped their present form of government since World War I: Austria, Finland, France, Germany, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Japan, and Turkey) tend to show higher UAI scores than do the old democra- cies (Australia, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Great Britain, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United States).°* Each of the young democracies ac- quired its present form of government after losing or winning a war in which the country played a more or less aggressive role. Lynn and Hampson (1977) have proven the continuity of their anxiety factor from 1935 to 1978 (see below). This means that the stress levels were not caused by the war, but rather contributed to the fact that countries took part in it."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Admitting more women to management jobs may also make the organization more responsive. Kanter (1983) has put it as follows: “Clearly, de- cision-makers, via their patterns of attention and inattention, intervene between a company and its environment. And this, of course, means that a company with a diverse group in the ‘dominant coalition’ at the top . . . is more likely to pick up more external cues” (p. 281). In Chapter 8, I will show that in a cross-organizational research proj- ect in Denmark and the Netherlands, organiza- tions with more women in management were found to have more open communication cli- mates. Yet even in these feminine national cul- tures, shifts in this direction, in organizations tra- ditionally led by men, are part of an uphill fight. In Western countries, organization development stressing openness and dealing with feelings has defended a feminine counterculture in a mascu- line business world for at least 30 years; it has rarely had lasting success."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Ways of handling conflicts in organizations also differ according to the mas/fem dimension. In the United States as well as in other masculine cultures, such as Britain and Ireland, there is a feeling that conflicts should be resolved by a good fight: “Let the best man win.” The industrial rela- tions scene in these countries is marked by such fights. If possible, management tries to avoid hav- ing to deal with labor unions at all, and labor un- ions’ behavior justifies their aversion. In femi- nine cultures such as Denmark, the Netherlands, and Sweden there is a preference for resolving conflicts through compromise and negotiation.**"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"and a mother to grow up happily, would you tend to agree or disagree?” (question 214). Although nearly 90% of respondents worldwide agreed, percentages agreeing inthe 18 wealthier countries did correlate strongly with UAI (rho = .78***; see Exhibit 4.12). If poor countries were included, the highest correlation was with IDV (negative): Collectivist countries favored the traditional fam- ily more. A related item was, “A job is alright but what most women really want is a home and chil- dren” (question 220). Agreement varied from 25% in Denmark to 91% in India. Across the wealthier countries, percentages agreeing were correlated primarily with UAI (rho = .70**).°9 In the wealthier high-UAI countries, fewer people were willing to accept the possibility of success for less traditional family compositions."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"The philosophy of the organization’s foun- der(s) and top leaders played a strong role in di- mension P4 (open versus closed), just as it did for dimension P2 (employee versus job orientation). Communication climates in the units we studied seemed to have been formed historically without much outside rationale; some organizations had developed a tradition of being closed, others of re- markable openness. In the national context, how- ever, open versus closed was the only one of the six practice dimensions significantly associated with nationality: An open organizational commu- nication climate was more characteristic of Dan- ish than of Dutch organizations. However, one Danish unit scored extremely closed, which cor- responded to its external and internal image and to what respondents told us about its history."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Based on their cultural characteristics, mascu- line versus feminine countries excel in different types of industries. Industrially developed mascu- line cultures have a competitive advantage in manufacturing, especially in large volume—do- ing things efficiently, well, and fast. They are good at the production of big and heavy equip- ment and in bulk chemistry. Feminine cultures have a relative advantage in service industries such as consulting and transportation, in manu- facturing according to customer specifications, and in handling live matter, such as in high-yield agriculture and biochemistry. There is an interna- tional division of labor in which countries are rel- atively more successful in activities that fit their populations’ cultural preferences than in activi- ties that go against these (see also Exhibit 9.4). Ja- pan is the world leader in high-quality consumer electronics; Denmark and the Netherlands excel"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"In the Middle East, Americans usually have a difiicult time with the Arabs. I remember an American agricultur- alist who went to Egypt to teach modern agricultural meth-"-- Edward T. Hall, "The Silent Language"

"but he had no way of knowing what. Later I learned that the Arabs regard anyone who tries to look into the future as slightly insane. When the American asked him about his future yield, the Egyptian was highly insulted since he thought the American considered him crazy. To the Arab only God knows the future, and it is presumptuous even to talk about it."-- Edward T. Hall, "The Silent Language"

"Age and generation effects are often confused. Complaints of older people about “young people today” have been found on an Egyptian papyrus manuscript that is 3,000 years old. One of the old- est Greek texts preserved, Hesiod’s Works and Days, which dates toward the end of the eighth century B.C., contains a pessimistic paragraph on the new generation in which “father will have no common bond with son” and “men will dishonor parents . .. and will blame and criticize with cruel words” (Hesiod, 1973, p. 64)."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"A particular problem arose for seven Arabic- speaking countries that within the IBM organiza- tion had formed the “Middle East region”: Egypt, Lebanon, Libya, Kuwait, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, and United Arab Republic. They had been surveyed both in 1969 and in 1972, but when I tried to ex- tend the country list in 1982, it turned out that IBM had not only inadvertently wiped the tape with the raw survey data, it had destroyed the data printouts as well. The only data printouts that were saved pertained to the total region, so I was"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Corporations start to compete for investment funds by progressively raising the returns to shareholders they offer to pay. If you want equity cap- ital, you have to pay more and more for financing, monies that are then wrested from governments, workers, education, and the environment. For example, in 1999 the Ford Motor Company demanded $50 million from the British government to keep its engine works at Bridgend and not move to Spain. Why the British taxpayer should finance Ford for not going away is not explained. It appears to be a question of power: "Pay or we move.""-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"The results of this research are interesting (Figure 1.2). Seven out of eight of the most universalist countries are Protestant and stable democ- racies: Switzerland, the United States, Canada, Sweden, Australia, the United Kingdom, and the Netherlands. Ireland is the exception, but this country was under British rule until 1921 and shares a common law tradi- tion. Catholics are, on the whole, less universalist: see the scores for Brazil, Spain, Poland, France, Mexico, Cuba, and Venezuela. Buddhist, Confu- cian, Hindu, and Shinto countries are more particularist still: see South Korea, China, Indonesia, Nepal, Japan, and Singapore."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Building Cross-Cultural Competence"

"Marieke de Mooij is a Dutch emeritus professor of international advertisement at the University of Navarre in Spain. She is known for her research on the influence of culture on marketing and advertising."-- Erdman, study guide to Hofstede's "Culture's Consequences"

"These two examples show that while Spanish culture is collectivist when compared with the English, it is individualist when compared with the Romanian one. In Spain family ties are much closer than in England. In Romania laws and rights differ by group much more than they do in Spain. Romanians and their friends were considered ingroup members compared with tour-What people from more ists, and only the latter needed train tickets and had to pay the collectivistic cultures"-- Hofstede & Pedersen, "Exploring Culture"

"full hotel fare. Northern Europeans often interpret Spanish be-perceive as “caring for"-- Hofstede & Pedersen, "Exploring Culture"

"His colleagues from France, Italy, Spain and the Middle East, who all know the situation, stare in disbelief. They would have backed him on the issue. His family later say they feel let down. This was not what they joined the company for."-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Riding the Waves of Culture"

"The French emphasis on the historic renewal of French-Mexican bonds was also effective with a culture that identifies with Spain and has deep European roots. American sequencing strikes synchronic cultures as aggressive, impatient and seeking to use customers as stepping-stones to personal advantage. If the relationship is genuinely to last, what is the hurry? Because the Mexicans did not agree that technological perfection was the key issue, they did not want to be on the receiving end of a de- tailed presentation timed to end just before the American departure. They wanted to experience a relationship they could partly control. In"-- Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, "Riding the Waves of Culture"

"In quadrant 3 (France, Spain, Portugal, former Yugoslavia, a number of Latin and Asian coun- tries) motivation is based on security and relation- ships. Individual wealth is less important than mutual solidarity."-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"e Joyriding (from 1.7 in Spain to 1.1 in Den- mark, correlation with PDI r= .85***)"-- Hofstede, "Culture's Consequences" (OCR)

"Strong uncertainty avoidance leading to intolerance of deviants and minorities has at times been costly to countries. The expulsion of the Jews from Spain and Portugal by the Catholic kings after the Reconquista of the Iberian Peninsula from the Moors (1492) has deprived these countries of some of their most enterprising citizens and is believed to have contrib- uted to the decadence of the empire in the following centuries. One group of Iberian Jews settled in the Netherlands and played an important role in the seventeenth-century Dutch colonial expansion. Others went to Costa Rica, which even today is a favorable exception to Latin American person- alismo and stagnation (see Chapter 4). In more recent history the exodus of top scientists, many of them Jewish, from Hitler's Germany enabled the Americans to develop the atomic bomb."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"languages all derive from Low Latin and were adopted in countries once part of the Roman Empire, or, in the case of Latin America, in countries colonized by Spain and Portugal, which themselves were former colonies of Rome. Germanic languages are spoken in countries that remained "bar- baric" in Roman days, in areas once under Roman rule but reconquered 84 DIMENSIONS OF NATIONAL CULTURES"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Different mind-sets must have played a role in the history of nations as long as there have been nations. Dutch sociologist Cornelis Lammers (19282009) demonstrated this fact in a case study from the early eigh- teenth century in the Spanish Netherlands (present-day Belgium). After the departure of the Spanish overlords, during a period of some ten years (170616) the territory was occupied partly by French troops, partly by British, and partly by Dutch. From the available records, Lammers com- pared the different regimes established by the three different occupying nations. The French tried to reform obsolete institutions and to estab- lish a French style of centralized, rationalized authority. The English and Intercultural Encounters 413"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"1. The strong-mayor form, in which an elected mayor controls the major- ity of the city council and is in charge of all executive functions. The top civil servant serves at the mayor's will. This form was found in France, Italy, Portugal, and Spain, as well as in major cities in the United States."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"On the other hand, there remains a tendency for ethnic, linguistic, and religious groups to fight for recognition of their own identity, if not for national independence; this tendency has been increasing rather than decreasing since the 1960s. Examples are the Ulster Roman Catholics; the Belgian Flemish; the Basques in Spain and France; the Kurds in Iran, Iraq, Syria, and Turkey; the ethnic groups of former Yugoslavia; the Hutu and Tutsi tribes in Rwanda; and the Chechens in Russia."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"A Japanese-Australian couple, Yoshi and Emiko Kashima, he a psycholo- gist, she a linguist, studied the relationship between culture and language. Among other features of languages, they studied pronoun drop, the practice of omitting the first-person singular pronoun ("I") from a sentence (for exam- ple, "I love you" in Spanish: te quiero rather than yo te quiero). They included thirty-nine languages used in seventy-one countries and looked for correla- tions with a number of other variables. The strongest correlation they found was with IDV.34 Languages spoken in individualist cultures tend to require speakers to use the "I" pronoun when referring to themselves; languages spoken in collectivist cultures allow or prescribe dropping this pronoun. The I, We, and They 113"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"A highly visible international project that is a combination of a stra- tegic alliance and a joint venture is the Airbus consortium in Toulouse, France. Airbus has become one of the two largest aircraft manufacturers in the world. Parts of the planes are manufactured by the participating com- panies in Britain, Germany, and Spain and then flown over to Toulouse, where the planes are assembled."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Ingrid Tollgerdt-Andersson, from Sweden, compared more than 1,400 job advertisements for executives from eight European countries. She looked for whether the ads mentioned personal and social abilities, such as ability to cooperate. This was the case in 80 percent or more of the ads in Sweden, Denmark, and Norway but only in some 50 percent in Italy and Spain. Weak uncertainty avoidance explains most of the differences. Abil- ity to cooperate is a soft criterion considered more valid in low-UAI coun- tries. Femininity explains nearly all the remaining differences: cooperation is a more important value in feminine than in masculine cultures.48"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"The reverse pattern, small power distance combined with medium col- lectivism, was found in Austria and Israel, and fairly small power distance is combined with strong collectivism in Costa Rica. Costa Rica, one of the six Central American republics, is widely recognized as an exception to the Latin American rule of dependence on powerful leaders, which in Spanish is called personalismo. Costa Rica does not have a formal army. It is described as Latin America's "most firmly rooted democracy," in spite of its relative poverty as compared with the industrial market economies of the world. In a comparison between Costa Rica and its larger but much poorer neighbor Nicaragua, U.S. development expert Lawrence E. Harrison has written:"-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"The data used for the computation of the PDI in IBM were from employees in various occupations and, therefore, from different education levels and social classes. However, the mix of occupations studied was kept constant for all countries. Comparisons of countries or regions should always be based on people in the same set of occupations. One should not compare Spanish engineers with Swedish secretaries. The mix of occupa- tions to be compared across all the subsidiaries was taken from the sales and service offices: these were the only activities that could be found in all countries. IBM's product development laboratories were located in only ten of the larger subsidiaries, and its manufacturing plants in thirteen."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"This is, of course, an ideological choice. In most of the nine European coun- tries, respondents on average preferred freedom over equality. The French sociologist Jean Stoetzel (191087), who published a brilliant analysis of the data, has computed a ratio for each country: preference for freedom divided by preference for equality. This ratio runs from about 1 in Spain (equal preference) to about 3 in Great Britain (freedom three times as popular as equality). The values of the freedom/equality ratio for the nine countries were significantly correlated with IDV: the more individualist a country, the stronger its citizens' preference for freedom over equality.55 Freedom is an individualist ideal, equality a collectivist ideal."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"country such as the United States. In Europe the cultural relativity of the laws that govern human behavior had been recognized as early as the six- teenth century in the skepticism of Michel de Montaigne (153392). The quote from Blaise Pascal (162362) referred to earlier in this chapter-- "There are truths on this side of the Pyrenees which are falsehoods on the other" (the Pyrenees being the border mountains between France and Spain)--was in fact inspired by Montaigne.65 Since Montaigne and Pas- cal, the link between nationality and ways of thinking has sometimes been recognized but more often forgotten."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Our ancestors start to show signs of much richer art and technology from around eighty thousand years ago in southern Africa and around thirty-two thousand years ago in Europe. This latter period is called the Aurignacien, for the site of artistic cave paintings of many species of animals found in what is now Aurignac, France. The oldest statuettes of voluptuous female figures, such as the recently uncovered "Venus of Hohle Fels," likewise date from this period. People also started to hunt dangerous animals. Whether they also actively fought their close relatives is not certain as yet. However that may be, Homo neanderthaliensis and the descendants of Homo erectus both died out less than some thirty thousand years ago, the first group in what is now Spain, the second on the Indonesian island of Flores."-- Hofstede & Hofstede, "Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind"

"Spanish-American in New Mexico, a relationship I have ob- served for over half a century. The descendants of the Spanish conquistadors are sensitive to the slightest suggestion of criti- cism. Confrontations are therefore to be avoided at all costs. In"-- Edward T. Hall, "Beyond Culture"

"ample, a young Spanish-American boy in Santa Fe was working part time for a hotel cook to whom he was also deeply indebted. One day, he simply failed to turn up, because the hours of his other job had been changed, which resulted in a serious conflict. Rather than having to tell the cook about his problem, he simply left without notice. In another instance, in my own household we once lost a very fine housekeeper because her hus- band insisted that she come home by 3 p.m. and our hours were nine to four but could have been changed. She could not bring herself to discuss this with my wife, and only indirectly and too late did we learn what the problem was. 140 BEYOND CULTURE"-- Edward T. Hall, "Beyond Culture"

"illustrated by Spanish-American and "SCAG enna and verbal skills, Anglo-American action chains in disputes, 138-41 148-50, 154, 156-60, 161-6 : Westen: logic ath :87-88 Identification, as bridge between culture and person, Man as a primate, implications for 204, 211 related to processes of dissociation, learning, 166 example of "generation gap,' ? 205- effects of size on groups, 177-78"-- Edward T. Hall, "Beyond Culture"

"A more typical Spanish-American reaction is the activities of Reyes Lopez Tijerina, who put up signs laying claim to land, took two state park rangers captive, and raided the Tierra Amarilla courthouse, with tragic consequences. He was signaling for attention to Spanish-American grievances. The Anglo com- munity read it as the last step in a dispute and countered with"-- Edward T. Hall, "Beyond Culture"